United States of America
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Charles Thomson, Secretary
Since 1777, July 4th has been celebrated as the birth date
of the United States of America. This date has remained significant despite the
adoption of two distinctly different U.S. Constitutions—on March 1, 1781 and March
4, 1789—that fundamentally reshaped the structure of the nation’s federal
government.
Why Does the U.S. Government Celebrate July 4th as
Independence Day Instead of July 2nd?
On July 2, 1776, the twelve “United Colonies of North
America,” a quasi-republic named by Congress in the 1775 Articles of Confederation Draft and the 1775 "Declaration for Taking Up Arms", declared
their independence from Great Britain. This pivotal moment was tied to the
adoption of Richard Henry Lee’s resolution, which declared that the colonies
“are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States.” The Lee
Resolution officially severed political ties between the colonies and the
British Crown, marking the birth of a new political entity.
At the time of this monumental vote, the Declaration of
Independence (DOI)—authored by Thomas Jefferson and edited by the Committee of
Five—was already under consideration by the Continental Congress. Notably, the
Committee’s edited draft bore the title “A Declaration by the Representatives
of the United States of America in General Congress Assembled.” In an important
linguistic shift, Jefferson’s draft dropped the word “North” from the “United
States of North America,” a significant step in crafting a broader identity for
the emerging republic. This draft was first presented to Congress on June 28,
1776, and tabled over the weekend for review. On July 1, the draft was read
again to the “Committee of the Whole” [1] and debated alongside the Lee
Resolution.
The colonies failed to reach unanimity on July 1, requiring further negotiation and a postponed vote. On July 2, 1776, critical decisions and dramatic actions secured the unanimous vote for independence.
In Pennsylvania, Robert Morris and John Dickinson, who opposed independence, strategically “abstained” by not attending the session. This absence allowed the remaining Pennsylvania delegates to cast their votes in favor of the resolution. Meanwhile, in South Carolina, Arthur Middleton defied his absent father, Henry Middleton, who had wished for a more cautious approach, and changed the colony’s vote to support independence.
The most dramatic moment came from Delaware, where a deadlock threatened the unanimity required for the vote. Caesar Rodney, a devoted patriot afflicted with severe asthma and battling facial cancer, was summoned by fellow delegate Thomas McKean to break the tie. Riding 80 miles through torrential rain and a fierce lightning storm, Rodney arrived just in time to cast the decisive third vote for Delaware in favor of independence.
With all 12 colonies now in agreement, the resolution introduced by Richard Henry Lee and championed by John Adams was adopted, officially declaring independence:
"That these united colonies are and of right ought to be free and independent states, that they are absolved from all Allegiance to the British crown and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is and ought to be totally dissolved." [2]
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| Charles Thomson Manuscript "Report in July 2, 1776, Lee Resolution For Independancy Agreed to July 2, 1776" |
This resolution established the colonies as free and
independent states. However, the adoption of the Declaration of Independence,
which would articulate the philosophical justifications for independence and
formally name the new republic, required further deliberation. Chairman
Benjamin Harrison requested additional time to refine the language, and
Congress agreed to postpone further action.
July 3 and the Transition to Independence
On July 3, 1776, the Continental Congress—now the governing
body of the unnamed independent republic—focused on pressing war resolutions
before returning to the Declaration of Independence. Among its acts, Congress
addressed logistical matters, such as military supplies and troop
mobilizations, reflecting its role as the legislative authority for the new
states. Despite these efforts, the DOI’s completion required additional debate
and refinement. Once again, Chairman Harrison requested more time, delaying final
approval until the following day.
July 4, 1776: Finalizing the Declaration of Independence
On July 4, Congress reconvened and began by addressing
military resolutions, such as the following:
"… that an application be made to the committee of safety of Pennsylvania for a supply of flints for the troops at New York: and that the colony of Maryland and Delaware be requested to embody their militia for the flying camp, with all expedition, and to march them, without delay, to the city of Philadelphia." [3]
Finally, Congress returned to the Declaration of
Independence, debating and revising it before adopting the document. As
recorded:
"The committee of the whole Congress have agreed to a Declaration, which he [Harrison] delivered in. The Declaration being read again … was agreed to.” [4]
The Declaration’s Dual Role: Justification and Naming the
Republic
The finalized Declaration of Independence served two
critical purposes. It provided a robust justification for the colonies’ break
from British rule, articulating their right to independence through universal
principles of liberty, equality, and self-determination. By detailing the
colonies’ grievances against the British Crown, the document legitimized their
separation on both a domestic and international stage.
Equally important, the Declaration formally named the new
republic: “The United States of America.” This marked a deliberate shift from
the prior designation, “United Colonies of North America.” By officially
adopting this title, the Declaration solidified the unity of the thirteen
states under a singular national identity, replacing a colonial framework with
a collective vision of a republic that transcended the boundaries of “North
America.” This act of naming was more than symbolic; it represented a commitment
to a unified purpose and a shared future, laying the foundation for cooperative
governance.
The significance of this unification became even more
apparent on July 9, 1776, when New York—the final holdout—adopted the
Declaration. This unanimous adoption transformed the document into a founding
charter, cementing the idea of a united nation committed to the principles it
espoused.
The Start of the Second United American Republic
While July 4, 1776, is recognized as the symbolic founding
of the United States, the substantive transition to independence began on July
2, 1776. On that day, the 12 Colonies formally severed their ties with Great
Britain through the Lee Resolution, establishing the legal and political
framework for the Second United American Republic. This act marked the end of
the “United Colonies of North America” and the birth of a new entity composed
of free and independent states.
In the days following July 2, the Continental Congress
assumed the role of governing authority for this nascent republic, passing war
resolutions and legislation to support its survival and sovereignty. The
Declaration of Independence, adopted by 12 States on July 4, refined and
formalized this transition by providing the philosophical justification for
independence and introducing the name “United States of America.”
As John Adams wrote to Abigail Adams on July 3, 1776:
"But the Day is past. The Second Day of July 1776 will be the most memorable Epocha, in the History of America. I am apt to believe that it will be celebrated, by succeeding Generations, as the great anniversary Festival. It ought to be commemorated, as the Day of Deliverance by solemn Acts of Devotion to God Almighty. It ought to be solemnized with Pomp and Parade, with Shews, Games, Sports, Guns, Bells, Bonfires and Illuminations from one End of this Continent to the other from this Time forward forever more." [5]
Adams’ words underscore the profound importance of July 2,
the day independence was declared. While July 4 is celebrated as the moment of
the republic’s symbolic founding, it was July 2 that established the
substantive break from Britain and the beginning of the Second United American
Republic.
The Gentleman’s Magazine and Historical Chronicle (London: D. Henry, 1776) is a highly collectible volume encompassing all 12 issues from 1776, including its supplement, bound together in one book. Despite wear to the covers, some damage to the spine, and occasional foxing, the volume remains complete and in good condition. This first edition is particularly significant for its early British printing of the Declaration of Independence in the August issue (page 361) and its detailed coverage of the American Revolution.
Conclusion
In summary, while July 4, 1776, is celebrated as
Independence Day, July 2 marks the true beginning of the United States
Republic. [6] It was on this day that thirteen independent states united under
the Lee Resolution, forming the foundation of what would become the United
States of America. The Declaration of Independence, adopted two days later,
articulated the principles of this independence and gave the new nation its
enduring name [7] and identity. The naming of the new republic was a matter of great significance and would resurface in subsequent debates during the drafting of the Articles of Confederation and the current U.S. Constitution. Initially, the 1775 Articles of Confederation and the Declaration for Taking Up Arms referred to the First United American Republic as the "United Colonies of North America."
Footnotes
[1] A Committee of the Whole is a device in which a
legislative body or other deliberative assembly is considered one large
committee.
[2] JCC, 1774-1789, July 2, 1776. After the passage of Lee's resolution the
Continental Congress enacted that "In obedience to their order, Captain
Whipple and Captain Saltonstal were come to Philadelphia; Whereupon, Resolved,
That the Marine Committee be directed to enquire into the complaints exhibited
against them, and report to Congress."
On the third of July seven different resolutions were passed, and
finally on the Fourth of July they “Resolved, That an application be made to
the committee of safety of Pennsylvania for a supply of flints for the troops
at New York: and that the colony of Maryland and Delaware be requested to
embody their militia for the flying camp, with all expedition, and to march
them, without delay, to the city of Philadelphia.” All were enacted before the Declaration of
Independence was adopted. Journals of the Continental Congress, July 2-4, 1776.
[3] JCC, 1774-1789, July 4, 1776.
[4] Ibid.
[5] Letter from John Adams to Abigail Adams, 3 July 1776. Letter from John
Adams to Abigail Adams, 3 July 1776. Original manuscript from the Adams Family
Papers, Massachusetts Historical Society.
[6] Journals of the Continental Congress, July 2-4, 1776.
[7] At the Philadelphia Convention on May 30, 1787, Virginia Governor and
member Edmund Randolph moved to rename the United States, the “National
Government of America.” This name would
remain as part of the current U.S. Constitution draft until June 20th, 1787,
when it was moved by Mr. Oliver Ellsworth, seconded by Mr. Nathaniel Gorham “…
to amend the first resolution reported from the Committee of the whole House so
as to read as follows -- namely, Resolved that the government of the United
States ought to consist of a Supreme Legislative, Judiciary, and Executive. On
the question to agree to the amendment it passed unanimously in the
affirmative.” Max Farrand, The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787. New
Haven: Yale University Press, 1911.
Continental Congress of the United States Presidents
July 2, 1776 to February 28, 1781
July 2, 1776
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October 29, 1777
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November 1, 1777
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December 9, 1778
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December 10, 1778
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September 28, 1779
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September 29, 1779
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February 28, 1781
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Journals of the Continental Congress - United States of America
July 2, 1776 (Tuesday):
Congress officially declares independence from Great Britain by passing Lee’s
resolution. This monumental day marks the formal break from British rule,
though the formal Declaration of Independence had yet to be adopted.
July 4, 1776 (Thursday):
Congress adopts the Declaration of Independence, drafted by Thomas Jefferson,
and orders it to be printed and distributed to the colonies and the Continental
Army. The Declaration outlines the colonies' grievances against Britain and
their right to self-governance.
July 8, 1776 (Monday):
Congress clarifies the jurisdictions of Generals Horatio Gates and Philip
Schuyler in the northern theater of war. Additionally, Congress grants
Washington expanded discretionary powers and augments the authority of the
commissary general, reflecting the growing scope of the conflict.
July 10, 1776 (Wednesday):
Congress denounces the British treatment of American prisoners captured during
the skirmish at the Cedars in Canada. The British and their Native allies had
mistreated American captives, which angered Congress and led to calls for
retaliation or better protection of American forces.
July 12, 1776 (Friday):
Congress reads and orders the printing of the draft Articles of Confederation,
which would serve as the framework for a national government. The document
still required significant debate and revision before it could be finalized.
July 17, 1776 (Wednesday):
Congress adopts "rules and orders for the government of this house,"
establishing internal guidelines for the conduct of its business and debate
procedures.
July 18, 1776 (Thursday):
Congress reads a draft "plan of treaties to be entered into with foreign
states," another crucial step in formalizing alliances and trade relations
with foreign powers, particularly France.
July 19, 1776 (Friday):
Congress orders the publication of Lord Howe’s commission and correspondence to
expose British attempts at misleading the American public with false hopes of a
negotiated peace. This move was designed to keep the public aware of the
British government's actual intentions.
July 20, 1776 (Saturday):
Congress commends the commanders of the American victory at Charleston, South
Carolina, where British forces were repelled in late June. This victory boosted
morale in the southern colonies and demonstrated the potential strength of the
American forces.
July 22, 1776 (Monday):
Congress adopts procedures for negotiating prisoner exchanges with the British.
Additionally, Congress authorizes the emission of an additional $5 million in
bills of credit and opens the debate on the Articles of Confederation, a major
step toward formalizing the union of the colonies.
July 24, 1776 (Wednesday):
Congress broadens regulations for confiscating British goods on the high seas,
encouraging American privateers to disrupt British trade.
July 26, 1776 (Friday):
Congress orders the publication of an account of a conference between General
Washington and a representative of Lord Howe, informing the public of ongoing
diplomatic efforts.
July 30, 1776 (Tuesday):
Congress recommends a southern military expedition against the Cherokee Nation,
who were allied with the British. It also adopts various resolutions in
response to the earlier inquiry into the failures of the Canadian campaign.
August 1776
August 2, 1776 (Friday):
Delegates to the Continental Congress officially sign the engrossed Declaration
of Independence, making the break with Britain formal. On the same day,
Congress authorizes the employment of the Stockbridge Indians, an Indigenous
group from Massachusetts, in military service.
August 6, 1776 (Tuesday):
Congress proposes a general prisoner-of-war exchange with the British, aiming
to secure the release of captured American soldiers and civilians.
August 8, 1776 (Thursday):
Congress orders General Charles Lee to return to Philadelphia from Charleston
to assist with military planning, as tensions grow in the northern theater of
war. Congress also concludes its three-week-long debate on the Articles of
Confederation.
August 12, 1776 (Monday):
Congress holds an inquiry into the conduct of Commodore Esek Hopkins, commander
of the Continental Navy. His leadership had been questioned due to inactivity
and controversial decisions during naval operations.
August 13, 1776 (Tuesday):
Congress opens debate on the revision of the Articles of War, which were the
guidelines for the conduct of soldiers in the Continental Army.
August 14, 1776 (Wednesday):
Congress adopts a plan to encourage the desertion of foreign mercenaries,
particularly the Hessians hired by Britain. The goal was to weaken the British
forces by enticing mercenaries to switch sides or abandon their posts.
August 15, 1776 (Thursday):
Congress rebukes Commodore Esek Hopkins for his failure to effectively lead the
Continental Navy.
August 16, 1776 (Friday):
Congress formally censures Commodore Hopkins, continuing the investigation into
his mismanagement of naval operations.
August 19, 1776 (Monday):
Congress orders Commodore Hopkins to resume command of the Continental fleet
despite the censure, as the fledgling navy still needed experienced leadership.
Congress also adopts extensive new instructions for Indian commissioners in the
middle department to manage relations with Indigenous tribes.
August 20, 1776 (Tuesday):
Congress reads the draft Articles of Confederation and orders them to be
printed in preparation for a full debate in the committee of the whole,
signaling progress toward formalizing the union of the colonies.
August 23, 1776 (Friday):
Congress authorizes additional troops to be placed on the Continental
establishment for the defense of the frontiers, especially in response to
threats from British and Native American forces.
August 26, 1776 (Monday):
Congress adopts measures for the relief of disabled soldiers and seamen,
recognizing the need to care for those wounded in battle.
August 27, 1776 (Tuesday):
Congress resolves to encourage foreign mercenaries in the British army to
desert, continuing its efforts to weaken British forces by reducing their
manpower.
August 30, 1776 (Friday):
Congress adopts a plan to improve the postal system, ensuring better
communication between the Continental Army, Congress, and the colonies, which
was critical for coordinating the war effort. :
September 1776
September 3, 1776 (Tuesday):
Congress receives General John Sullivan's written report on Lord Howe's
proposal for a peace conference. Sullivan had been captured by the British and
sent to Congress with peace proposals from Lord Howe, offering terms short of
full independence, which Congress later rejected.
September 6, 1776 (Friday):
Congress designates Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and Edward Rutledge to meet
with Lord Howe to discuss the British peace proposal. This meeting was seen as
a diplomatic formality, with Congress already leaning toward full independence.
September 9, 1776 (Monday):
Congress revises the style of Continental commissions, officially replacing the
term "United Colonies" with "United States." This change
reflected the shift in focus from a group of rebellious colonies to a new,
independent nation.
September 11, 1776 (Wednesday):
The committee, including Franklin, Adams, and Rutledge, meets with Lord Howe on
Staten Island to discuss peace terms. The talks failed, as the Americans
insisted on full independence, which Lord Howe was not authorized to grant.
September 16, 1776 (Monday):
Congress adopts a new plan for a Continental Army of 88 battalions and
implements a system of bounties to incentivize recruitment of officers and
soldiers. The growing size and scope of the war required more organized
recruitment efforts.
September 17, 1776 (Tuesday):
Congress adopts the Plan of Treaties, outlining diplomatic principles and trade
agreements to be proposed to foreign nations, particularly France. On the same
day, Congress receives and orders publication of the committee's report on the
unsuccessful conference with Lord Howe.
September 20, 1776 (Friday):
Congress adopts the Articles of War, which provided a comprehensive
legal framework for military discipline and justice in the Continental Army.
September 22, 1776 (Sunday):
Congress sends a committee to New York to investigate the state of the army.
With New York under threat, Congress sought to assess military readiness and
respond to any urgent needs.
September 25, 1776 (Wednesday):
Congress resolves to send a committee to Fort Ticonderoga to improve the
administration and effectiveness of the northern army, which had struggled
during the failed invasion of Canada.
September 26, 1776 (Thursday):
Congress appoints Silas Deane, Benjamin Franklin, and Thomas Jefferson as
commissioners to France, tasking them with securing military aid, diplomatic
recognition, and trade agreements to support the American cause.
September 28, 1776 (Saturday):
Congress adopts "letters of credence" for the commissioners at Paris
and outlines a plan for their financial maintenance and diplomatic duties.
These letters introduced the commissioners to the French government,
formalizing their role.
October 1776
October 1, 1776 (Tuesday):
Congress appoints Thomas Mifflin as Quartermaster General to replace Stephen
Moylan. Mifflin's organizational skills were critical for ensuring the army's
supplies and logistics. Congress also appoints a committee to draft a plan for
a military academy to train officers for the Continental Army.
October 2, 1776 (Wednesday):
Congress refuses to accept General Philip Schuyler's resignation as commander
of the northern department. Schuyler had offered to resign due to criticism of
his handling of the Canadian campaign, but Congress still valued his
leadership.
October 3, 1776 (Thursday):
Congress resolves to borrow $5 million to fund the war and establishes a system
of loan offices in each colony to manage these transactions. This was a crucial
step toward maintaining financial support for the war effort as costs continued
to rise.
October 7, 1776 (Monday):
Congress receives General Charles Lee’s personal report on the southern
department. Lee had been active in defending the southern colonies and provided
updates on military conditions. Congress also advances him $30,000 as indemnity
for property he lost in England due to his allegiance to the American cause.
October 9, 1776 (Wednesday):
Congress appoints John Morgan and William Shippen, Jr., as directors of
military hospitals, with Morgan overseeing hospitals on the east side of the
Hudson River and Shippen responsible for those in New Jersey. This was part of
efforts to improve medical care for soldiers.
October 14, 1776 (Monday):
Congress accepts the report of the committee on the appeal of the libel case Joshua
Wentworth v. the Elizabeth from the maritime court of New Hampshire. This
case involved the confiscation of British ships and prize law, a key issue as
American privateers captured enemy vessels.
October 18, 1776 (Friday):
Congress appoints Thaddeus Kosciuszko, a Polish engineer, as colonel of
engineers in the Continental Army. Kosciuszko's expertise in fortifications
would play a crucial role in future battles.
October 22, 1776 (Tuesday):
Congress appoints Arthur Lee to replace Thomas Jefferson as a commissioner to
France, as Jefferson declined the appointment. Congress also instructs the
commissioners in France to procure eight line-of-battle ships, demonstrating
the need for naval support in the war.
October 28, 1776 (Monday):
Congress appoints a committee to conduct an inquiry into the monopolizing and
engrossing of military supplies, as concerns grew over profiteering and
shortages that threatened the army’s ability to fight effectively.
October 30, 1776 (Wednesday):
Congress rejects a proposal from Maryland to substitute money for land as an
additional bounty for soldiers. Instead, Congress adopts a new formula for the
division of prize money captured by the Continental Navy, ensuring equitable
distribution among sailors and officers.
November 1776
November 2, 1776 (Saturday):
Congress resolves to emit an additional $5 million in Continental currency to
continue funding the war, a necessary move as the expenses of military
operations increased.
November 6, 1776 (Wednesday):
Congress resolves to appoint a Naval Board in Philadelphia to execute the
business of the navy under the direction of the Marine Committee. This board
would oversee naval operations, shipbuilding, and procurement for the growing
Continental Navy.
November 11, 1776 (Monday):
Congress directs the Board of War to confer with the Pennsylvania Council of
Safety on the defense of Philadelphia. With the British advancing, the defense
of major cities like Philadelphia was a pressing concern.
November 15, 1776 (Friday):
Congress adopts a new pay plan for the Continental Navy, adjusting salaries to
attract sailors and officers and ensure the navy could operate effectively.
November 18, 1776 (Monday):
Congress adopts a lottery scheme to raise funds for the Continental war effort,
as other means of raising revenue were proving insufficient to meet the growing
financial demands of the war.
November 20, 1776 (Wednesday):
Congress resolves to enlarge the navy by authorizing the construction of eight
additional ships. The expansion of the navy was essential for defending
American ports and disrupting British supply lines.
November 23, 1776 (Saturday):
Congress receives news of the British evacuation of Fort Lee and their
subsequent crossing of the Hudson River. This retreat marked a low point for
American forces, as British troops gained ground in New Jersey.
November 25, 1776 (Monday):
In response to the British advance, Congress urges Pennsylvania to mobilize its
militia for a six-week emergency period to bolster defenses and slow the
British invasion.
December 1776
December 1, 1776 (Sunday):
Congress holds an emergency Sunday session and authorizes General Washington to
order troops from the east side of the Hudson River to the west side to counter
the British forces moving into New Jersey.
December 5, 1776 (Thursday):
Congress hears an address from an Indian delegation, reflecting ongoing
diplomatic efforts to maintain Native American neutrality or support in the war
against Britain.
December 8, 1776 (Sunday):
Congress holds another emergency Sunday session, a rare occurrence, indicating
the urgent military situation as British forces advanced in New Jersey and
threatened Philadelphia.
December 11, 1776 (Wednesday):
Congress proclaims a day of fasting and humiliation, seeking divine
intervention in the critical moments of the war. Congress also instructs
General Washington to contradict the rumor that Congress was preparing to flee
Philadelphia in the face of British advances.
December 12, 1776 (Thursday):
Congress adjourns to Baltimore as the British threat to Philadelphia becomes
imminent. General Israel Putnam is left in command to direct the defense of the
city in Washington’s absence.
December 20, 1776 (Friday):
Congress reconvenes in Baltimore and immediately inquires into the treatment of
General Charles Lee, who had recently been captured by British forces. Lee’s
capture was a blow to American morale.
December 21, 1776 (Saturday):
Congress appoints George Clymer, Robert Morris, and George Walton as an
executive committee in Philadelphia, charged with overseeing the city's defense
and managing military operations while Congress was in Baltimore.
December 23, 1776 (Monday):
Congress authorizes its commissioners in Paris to borrow "two million
sterling" from France, arm six vessels of war, and gather information on
Portugal’s hostile actions toward American ships. This move sought to secure
vital foreign aid and strengthen diplomatic ties.
December 26, 1776 (Thursday):
Congress appoints a committee to draft a plan "for the better conducting
the executive business of Congress, by boards composed of persons not members
of Congress." This restructuring aimed to improve the efficiency of
Congress’s wartime administration.
December 27, 1776 (Friday):
Congress confers extraordinary powers on General Washington for six months,
granting him broad authority to act without prior approval from Congress,
reflecting the dire military situation and need for quick decisions.
December 30, 1776 (Monday):
Congress approves new instructions for American commissioners abroad and votes
to send commissioners to the courts of Vienna, Spain, Prussia, and the Grand
Duke of Tuscany, expanding diplomatic efforts to secure alliances and military
support.
December 31, 1776 (Tuesday):
Congress receives General Washington’s announcement of his stunning victory
over the Hessian garrison at Trenton, a morale-boosting victory that came at a
critical time for the American cause.
January 1777
January 1, 1777 (Wednesday):
Congress appoints Benjamin Franklin as commissioner to the Court of Spain.
Franklin’s diplomatic skill had already proven effective in securing French
support, and this appointment was a step toward seeking aid from Spain, another
potential ally in the war against Britain.
January 3, 1777 (Friday):
Congress directs General George Washington to investigate and protest British
General William Howe's treatment of American prisoners, including Congressman
Richard Stockton. Stockton had been captured by British forces and reportedly
mistreated, which led Congress to seek a formal protest regarding the treatment
of captured American officials.
January 6, 1777 (Monday):
Congress denounces General Howe's treatment of General Charles Lee, who had
been captured by British forces on December 13, 1776. Congress threatens
retaliation against British prisoners of war if Lee and other American
prisoners are not treated in accordance with the rules of war.
January 8, 1777 (Wednesday):
Congress authorizes the posting of Continental garrisons for the defense of
western Virginia, a region under threat from both British and Native American
forces. Additionally, Congress provides financing for Massachusetts' expedition
against Fort Cumberland in Nova Scotia, which was aimed at securing the
northern front.
January 9, 1777 (Thursday):
Congress dismisses Dr. John Morgan, director general of military hospitals, and
Samuel Stringer, director of the hospital in the northern department. These
dismissals reflected dissatisfaction with the management of military hospitals,
which were plagued by inefficiencies and poor conditions.
January 14, 1777 (Tuesday):
Congress adopts proposals to bolster Continental money, including recommending
state taxation to help meet state quotas for financial contributions to the war
effort. The rising costs of the war made fiscal reforms a priority.
January 16, 1777 (Thursday):
Congress proposes appointing a commissary specifically for American prisoners
held by the British, recognizing the need for better coordination in providing
for their welfare. Congress also orders an inquiry into British and Hessian
depredations in New York and New Jersey, where soldiers had been accused of
looting and other abuses.
January 18, 1777 (Saturday):
Congress orders the distribution of authenticated copies of the Declaration
of Independence, which for the first time includes the names of the
signers. This move was aimed at reaffirming the unity and resolve of the
American colonies.
January 24, 1777 (Friday):
Congress provides funds for holding an Indian treaty at Easton, Pennsylvania.
Diplomacy with Native American tribes remained critical, as the colonies sought
to secure alliances or neutrality from Native nations during the conflict.
January 28, 1777 (Tuesday):
Congress appoints a committee to study the condition of Georgia, which was
facing British military threats and internal struggles. The committee was
tasked with determining what support was needed for the colony.
January 29, 1777 (Wednesday):
Congress directs Joseph Trumbull, commissary general, to conduct an inquiry
into his deputy commissary Carpenter Wharton, who had been accused of
misconduct. This was part of broader efforts to improve the administration of
army supplies.
January 30, 1777 (Thursday):
Congress creates a standing committee on appeals from state admiralty courts,
establishing a formal process for handling disputes related to naval captures
and prize cases.
February 1777
February 1, 1777 (Saturday):
Congress orders measures to suppress insurrection in Worcester and Somerset
counties, Maryland, where local Loyalists were suspected of organizing
resistance against the revolution. This reflected the ongoing internal
struggles within the colonies between Patriots and Loyalists.
February 5, 1777 (Wednesday):
Congress orders measures to obtain troops from the Carolinas to reinforce
Continental forces. Congress also instructs the Secret Committee to procure
supplies from France, continuing diplomatic efforts to secure foreign aid.
February 6, 1777 (Thursday):
Congress directs measures for the defense of Georgia, which was under threat
from British forces, and recommends securing the friendship of southern Native
American tribes. Maintaining Native American alliances was essential for the
security of the southern colonies.
February 10, 1777 (Monday):
Congress recommends a temporary embargo in response to the British naval
"infestation" of Chesapeake Bay, where British ships were disrupting
trade and threatening the coastal regions.
February 12, 1777 (Wednesday):
Congress recommends the inoculation of Continental troops for smallpox. This
was a critical decision, as smallpox outbreaks had devastated soldiers, and
inoculation was seen as a necessary measure to protect the army's health.
February 15, 1777 (Saturday):
Congress endorses the recommendations adopted at the December-January New
England Conference, a meeting of military and political leaders to coordinate
the war effort. Congress also recommends similar conferences in the middle and
southern states to ensure unity and effective coordination of resources.
February 17, 1777 (Monday):
Congress endorses General Philip Schuyler's efforts to maintain the friendship
of the Six Nations (Iroquois Confederacy), who held a strategic position in New
York and whose support or neutrality was vital to both British and American
forces.
February 18, 1777 (Tuesday):
Congress directs General Washington to conduct an inquiry into the military
abilities of foreign officers who had joined the Continental Army. Many foreign
officers, including those from France and Prussia, had offered their services,
but their qualifications were not always clear.
February 19, 1777 (Wednesday):
Congress elects five major generals, marking a significant reorganization of
the Continental Army’s command structure to improve leadership in the field.
February 21, 1777 (Friday):
Congress rejects General Charles Lee's request for a congressional delegation
to meet with him to consider British peace overtures. Lee had been captured by
the British, and his request was seen as potentially undermining American
unity. Congress also elects 10 brigadier generals to strengthen the army's
leadership.
February 22, 1777 (Saturday):
Congress resolves to borrow $13 million in loan office certificates,
recognizing the need for additional funds to continue financing the war.
February 25, 1777 (Tuesday):
Congress adopts measures to curb desertion in the Continental Army, a serious
problem as soldiers often fled during the harsh winter months.
February 26, 1777 (Wednesday):
Congress raises the interest on loan office certificates from 4% to 6%, hoping
to make these certificates more attractive to investors and secure additional
funding.
February 27, 1777 (Thursday):
Congress cautions Virginia about expeditions against Native American tribes,
advising restraint to avoid provoking unnecessary conflicts. Congress then
adjourns to Philadelphia, to reconvene on March 5.
March 1777
March 5-11, 1777:
Congress fails to attain a quorum for several days. On March 11, Congress urges
Delaware and New York to dispatch delegates to ensure proper representation, as
the lack of quorum was delaying important decisions.
March 12, 1777 (Wednesday):
Congress finally reconvenes, having attained a quorum, and resumes its
legislative work.
March 13, 1777 (Thursday):
Congress cautions American agents abroad against recruiting foreign officers
who have limited English language skills. Language barriers had proven
problematic in the field, and Congress wanted to ensure that foreign officers
could effectively communicate with their American counterparts. Congress also
appoints a committee to confer with General Horatio Gates on the general state
of military affairs.
March 15, 1777 (Saturday):
Congress reprimands General Philip Schuyler for making comments that were
"highly derogatory to the honor of Congress." Schuyler had been
critical of Congress’s actions and decisions, and the reprimand reflected
growing tensions between military leaders and political authorities.
March 17-18, 1777:
Congress adjourns again due to lack of a quorum, with only eight states
represented.
March 19, 1777 (Wednesday):
Congress appoints a committee to handle applications from foreign officers
seeking military appointments in the Continental Army. Congress also declines
an offer of service from Baron de Kalb, a German officer, though he would later
play a key role in the American Revolution.
March 21, 1777 (Friday):
Congress appoints a committee to confer with General Nathanael Greene, one of
Washington’s most trusted commanders, to discuss military strategy and
logistics.
March 22, 1777 (Saturday):
Congress establishes the office of secretary of Congress, defining its
organization and duties. This position was essential for maintaining records
and ensuring the smooth functioning of Congress’s legislative processes.
March 24, 1777 (Monday):
Congress informs General Washington that it never intended for him to feel
bound by a majority decision in a council of war that contradicted his own
judgment. This message reaffirmed Washington’s authority as commander in chief
and gave him greater latitude in making military decisions.
March 25, 1777 (Tuesday):
Congress urges Virginia to suspend operations against western Native American
tribes, recognizing the need to avoid sparking new conflicts on the frontier.
Congress also directs General Horatio Gates to take command of the Continental
Army at Fort Ticonderoga, a key strategic point in the northern theater.
William C. Houston is appointed deputy secretary of Congress.
March 26, 1777 (Wednesday):
Congress suspends Esek Hopkins, commander in chief of the Continental Navy,
from his command. Hopkins had faced criticism for his handling of naval
operations, and his suspension reflected Congress’s dissatisfaction with the
navy’s performance.
March 29, 1777 (Saturday):
Congress reaffirms its decision not to send a delegation to confer with
General Charles Lee, who was still in British custody. Congress remained
cautious about any negotiations that might undermine the colonies' fight for
independence.
April 1777
April 1, 1777 (Tuesday):
Congress adopts a plan for "better regulating the pay of the army."
This decision addresses growing concerns among the troops about inconsistent or
insufficient pay, an issue that had led to morale problems and desertion.
April 4, 1777 (Friday):
Congress adopts commissary reforms recommended by General Nathanael Greene.
Greene, appointed as Quartermaster General, had identified significant
inefficiencies in the system responsible for feeding and supplying the troops,
and his reforms were aimed at improving logistics.
April 7, 1777 (Monday):
Congress adopts a plan to reorganize the medical department of the Continental
Army. This reorganization is part of ongoing efforts to improve the care of
wounded and sick soldiers, following complaints about inadequate medical
facilities and supplies.
April 8, 1777 (Tuesday):
Congress adopts proposals to honor the memory of Generals Joseph Warren and
Hugh Mercer, both of whom had died in service of the Continental cause. These
resolutions include commemorations and recognition of their sacrifices in the
Revolutionary War.
April 10, 1777 (Thursday):
Congress orders measures for the defense of the western frontiers, which were
vulnerable to British and Native American attacks. General Edward Hand is
appointed to command the defense of Fort Pitt, a key strategic location in the
west.
April 11, 1777 (Friday):
Congress appoints William Shippen, Jr. as the new director general of military
hospitals, with a new staff of physicians and surgeons general. This overhaul
of the medical department was intended to improve healthcare for soldiers and
address issues with leadership and efficiency.
April 14, 1777 (Monday):
Congress adopts measures to improve recruitment for the Continental Army and
revises the Articles of War, the military code governing the conduct of
the army, to strengthen discipline and operations.
April 16, 1777 (Wednesday):
Congress urges Rhode Island, Massachusetts, and Connecticut to launch
coordinated attacks on British forces in Rhode Island. The British had occupied
Newport, and these efforts were aimed at dislodging them from the strategic
position.
April 18, 1777 (Friday):
Congress resolves to publish a report on British depredations and appoints a
committee to investigate and conduct an inquiry into General Philip Schuyler's
command in the northern department, following complaints and criticisms of his
leadership.
April 21, 1777 (Monday):
Congress resumes debate on the Articles of Confederation, the document
that would serve as the foundation for a confederated government of the
colonies. These debates continued over the structure and powers of the national
government.
April 22, 1777 (Tuesday):
Congress orders William Franklin, the Loyalist son of Benjamin Franklin and
former royal governor of New Jersey, into close confinement. This was in
retaliation for Franklin's urging Americans to seek royal pardons, an action
considered counter to the revolutionary cause.
April 25, 1777 (Friday):
Congress orders measures for reinforcing and mobilizing General Washington's
army in anticipation of major British offensives expected in the spring and
summer of 1777.
April 29, 1777 (Tuesday):
Congress orders measures for the defense of Lake Champlain and Fort
Ticonderoga, both of which were crucial to preventing British advances from
Canada into New York and the northern colonies.
April 30, 1777 (Wednesday):
Congress appoints a committee to evaluate the consequences of the British raid
on Danbury, Connecticut, which had resulted in the destruction of American
military supplies. It also adopts further reforms in the quartermaster and
commissary departments to improve the army's supply lines.
May 1777
May 1, 1777 (Thursday):
Congress discusses possible hostilities with Portugal due to British influence
over that country, while appointing Arthur Lee as commissioner to Spain to
secure Spanish support for the American cause.
May 3, 1777 (Saturday):
Congress exonerates General Philip Schuyler from charges of misusing public
funds, after a thorough investigation. Schuyler’s reputation had been damaged
by these accusations, but this decision allows him to continue his command.
May 5, 1777 (Monday):
Congress continues debating the Articles of Confederation, discussing
the nature of the relationship between the states and the central government.
May 7, 1777 (Wednesday):
Ralph Izard is appointed commissioner to Tuscany, reflecting the importance of
establishing diplomatic relations with European powers that might support the
American cause.
May 9, 1777 (Friday):
William Lee is appointed commissioner to Berlin and Vienna, further expanding
American diplomatic efforts to secure recognition and aid from European
nations.
May 14, 1777 (Wednesday):
Congress debates the reorganization of the quartermaster department, continuing
efforts to improve the efficiency of military supply chains, which had been a
persistent problem for the Continental Army.
May 20, 1777 (Tuesday):
Congress resolves to emit an additional $5 million in Continental currency,
recognizing the need to fund the war effort despite the growing concerns over
inflation and the depreciation of currency.
May 22, 1777 (Thursday):
Congress appoints General Philip Schuyler to command the northern department,
reaffirming its confidence in his leadership despite earlier controversies.
May 29, 1777 (Thursday):
Congress considers a draft address to the inhabitants of the United States,
aimed at rallying support for the war and maintaining public morale in the face
of British military pressure.
June 1777
June 3, 1777 (Tuesday):
Congress appoints a committee to oversee the defense of Pennsylvania, as
concerns grow over a possible British invasion targeting Philadelphia.
June 4, 1777 (Wednesday):
Congress empowers General Washington to offer rewards to encourage British
soldiers to desert and join the American cause. This was part of a
psychological campaign to weaken British forces.
June 6, 1777 (Friday):
Congress directs both the Secret Committee and Marine Committee to submit
reports on their expenditures and proceedings, reflecting the need for greater
oversight and accountability in these key areas of wartime logistics and
procurement.
June 10, 1777 (Tuesday):
Congress reorganizes the commissary department once again to streamline the
supply of food and materials to the army, as inefficiencies continued to hamper
military efforts.
June 11, 1777 (Wednesday):
Congress receives a report from a committee on "ways and means for
defraying the expense of the current year," addressing the ongoing
financial challenges of funding the war effort.
June 14, 1777 (Saturday):
Congress adopts the design of the United States flag, which would become known
as the "Stars and Stripes." On the same day, Deputy Muster Master
Gunning Bedford is disciplined for issuing a challenge to delegate Jonathan
Dickinson Sergeant over remarks made during congressional proceedings,
emphasizing Congress's need to maintain decorum and unity.
June 17, 1777 (Tuesday):
Congress memorializes General David Wooster for his bravery during the defense
of Danbury, Connecticut, where he had died fighting British forces in April.
June 18, 1777 (Wednesday):
Congress orders George Morgan to convene an Indian conference at Fort Pitt,
seeking to maintain or secure Native American alliances, particularly in the
western territories.
June 23, 1777 (Monday):
Congress resumes debate on the Articles of Confederation and hears a
complaint from New York against the inhabitants of the "New Hampshire
Grants" (later Vermont), a region seeking statehood but causing tension
between New York and New Hampshire.
June 30, 1777 (Monday):
Congress rebuffs a movement to establish Vermont statehood, siding with New
York's claim to the disputed territory.
July 1777
July 1, 1777 (Tuesday):
Congress adopts instructions for the newly appointed commissioners to Vienna,
Berlin, and Tuscany, formalizing diplomatic relations with European states.
July 3, 1777 (Thursday):
Congress adopts instructions for the commissioner to the United Provinces
(Netherlands) and dispatches troops to suppress Loyalist activities in Delaware
and Maryland, where British sympathizers continued to resist the revolution.
July 5, 1777 (Saturday):
Congress creates the Committee of Commerce to replace the Secret Committee,
signaling a shift toward greater transparency and oversight in matters of trade
and procurement.
July 7, 1777 (Monday):
Congress condemns Generals Nathanael Greene, Henry Knox, and John Sullivan for
their "attempt to influence" Congress, as these officers had made
efforts to sway decisions in ways that Congress deemed inappropriate.
July 11, 1777 (Friday):
Congress appoints a committee to proceed to camp to "make a diligent
inquiry into the state of the army," reflecting concerns about the
condition and effectiveness of the Continental forces.
July 14, 1777 (Monday):
Congress receives news of the American retreat from Fort Ticonderoga and Mount
Independence, a significant loss that raises alarm over the British advance in
the northern theater of the war.
July 16, 1777 (Wednesday):
Congress appoints a committee to confer with the French officer du Coudray
regarding his "agreement" with Commissioner Silas Deane, an issue
involving the recruitment of foreign officers.
July 23, 1777 (Wednesday):
Congress dismisses 12 naval officers to set an "example" after they
had formed a combination to demand increased pay and allowances, a move seen as
undermining discipline.
July 25, 1777 (Friday):
Congress appoints a committee to study the defense of the southern frontier and
commends Colonels William Barton and Return Jonathan Meigs for their
"enterprise and valor" in capturing British General Richard Prescott
during a daring raid on Long Island.
July 29, 1777 (Tuesday):
Congress orders an inquiry into the evacuation of Fort Ticonderoga and Mount
Independence to assess responsibility for the loss of these critical
fortifications.
July 31, 1777 (Thursday):
Congress commissions the Marquis de Lafayette a major general in the
Continental Army, marking the arrival of the young French aristocrat who would
play a significant role in the war.
August 1777
August 1, 1777 (Friday):
Congress begins an inquiry into Commissioner Silas Deane's contracts with
foreign officers, following concerns about the terms and costs of foreign aid
and military commissions.
August 4, 1777 (Monday):
Congress appoints General Horatio Gates to replace General Philip Schuyler as
commander of the northern department, a decision driven by dissatisfaction with
Schuyler’s handling of the defense of Fort Ticonderoga.
August 5, 1777 (Tuesday):
Congress begins consideration of a report from the Committee to Camp on the
"state of the army," reflecting ongoing concerns about the army's
readiness and effectiveness.
August 7, 1777 (Thursday):
Congress directs General Washington to negotiate an exchange of prisoners with
the British, seeking to relieve the suffering of captured soldiers on both
sides.
August 8, 1777 (Friday):
Congress records its first roll call vote on a motion to promote Brigadier
General Benedict Arnold. Arnold had distinguished himself in battle, but
controversy surrounded his leadership.
August 11, 1777 (Monday):
Congress directs the implementation of General Washington’s proposals for the
defense of the Delaware River, which was a vital waterway for Philadelphia and
American supply routes.
August 15, 1777 (Friday):
Congress agrees to accept the parole of prominent Pennsylvania dissidents who
sought to avoid exile to Virginia. These individuals had been detained for
their opposition to the revolution.
August 20, 1777 (Wednesday):
Congress directs the mustering of the Pennsylvania militia and dispatches New
Jersey militia to New York to relieve troops for frontier defense, recognizing
the need to secure the northern and western frontiers.
August 21, 1777 (Thursday):
Congress endorses General Washington's proposal to march the main Continental
Army toward the Hudson River, positioning forces to counter British movements
in the region. Congress also receives news of the American victory at the
Battle of Bennington, Vermont, a morale-boosting win.
August 22, 1777 (Friday):
Congress learns of the British invasion of the Chesapeake Bay, marking the
beginning of a new British campaign aimed at capturing Philadelphia. Congress
alerts General Washington to this threat and issues a call for militia from
Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia.
August 26, 1777 (Tuesday):
Congress requests that Pennsylvania and Delaware apprehend and disarm
"notoriously disaffected" persons within their states, referring to
Loyalists and others suspected of aiding the British.
August 28, 1777 (Thursday):
Congress reverses its earlier decision to parole prominent Pennsylvania
dissidents and orders their removal from the state, reflecting continued
distrust of Loyalist elements.
September 1777
September 1, 1777 (Monday):
Congress orders an inquiry into the failure of General John Sullivan's
expedition against Staten Island. The expedition, launched in late August, had
aimed to attack British forces but ended in retreat, raising concerns about
leadership and execution.
September 4, 1777 (Thursday):
Congress orders the further call-up of Pennsylvania and New Jersey militia to
reinforce General Washington's army. These reinforcements were crucial as the
British under General Howe threatened Philadelphia.
September 6, 1777 (Saturday):
Congress directs the clothier general to provide clothing bounties to troops,
addressing the desperate need for uniforms and gear in the Continental Army as
winter approached.
September 8, 1777 (Monday):
Congress rebukes Silas Deane, the American commissioner to France, for
exceeding his authority in negotiating agreements with foreign officers. Deane
had made several promises to European officers, particularly Frenchmen, without
full congressional approval, complicating American diplomacy.
September 9, 1777 (Tuesday):
Congress orders General Washington to write Congress at least twice daily,
"advising the position and movements of the armies." Congress wanted
regular updates given the precarious military situation, especially as Howe's
army threatened Philadelphia.
September 10, 1777 (Wednesday):
Congress adopts a "ways and means" motion to pay interest accruing on
loan office certificates in bills of exchange on the American commissioners in
Paris. This move was an effort to maintain confidence in Continental currency
by paying creditors in more stable foreign currencies.
September 11, 1777 (Thursday):
Congress learns of the American defeat at the Battle of Brandywine, where
General Washington's forces were outflanked by the British and forced to
retreat, leaving Philadelphia vulnerable.
September 12, 1777 (Friday):
Congress directs General Israel Putnam to send reinforcements to Washington's
army. The battle at Brandywine had seriously weakened American forces, and
additional troops were needed to hold off further British advances.
September 14, 1777 (Sunday):
Congress orders the recall of General John Sullivan until the inquiry into his
conduct during the Staten Island expedition is completed. Congress also
resolves to convene in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, if Philadelphia needs to be
evacuated due to the British threat.
September 15, 1777 (Monday):
Congress orders an investigation into a rumored conspiracy in Pennsylvania.
Loyalist sympathizers were suspected of plotting against the revolution, and
Congress acted to preemptively uncover any treasonous activities.
September 16, 1777 (Tuesday):
Congress grants General Washington broad powers to discipline military officers
and to impress supplies for the army, giving him greater flexibility in
managing military resources. Congress also orders the removal of military
supplies from Philadelphia to prevent them from falling into British hands.
September 18, 1777 (Thursday):
Congress evacuates Philadelphia as British forces, under General Howe, approach
the city. The delegates flee to Lancaster, taking critical documents and
supplies with them.
September 19-26, 1777:
Delegates are in flight from Philadelphia to Lancaster, then to York,
Pennsylvania, as British forces occupy Philadelphia on September 26.
September 27, 1777 (Saturday):
Congress convenes in Lancaster but soon resolves to move to York, which was
safer from British advances.
September 30, 1777 (Tuesday):
Congress reconvenes in York, Pennsylvania, establishing it as the temporary
seat of government.
October 1777
October 1, 1777 (Wednesday):
Congress resolves to meet twice daily, reflecting the urgency of the military
and political crises facing the fledgling government.
October 2, 1777 (Thursday):
Congress authorizes delegates to draw provisions from Continental commissaries,
ensuring they are supplied during their stay in York.
October 4, 1777 (Saturday):
Congress commends several officers for bravery in defending against British
General John Burgoyne’s northern invasion, acknowledging the critical efforts
in upstate New York where American forces were halting Burgoyne's advance.
October 7, 1777 (Tuesday):
Congress debates the "mode of voting" under the draft Articles of
Confederation. Discussions focus on how votes would be allocated among the
states in the new government framework.
October 8, 1777 (Wednesday):
Congress adopts penalties for individuals "communicating" with the
enemy, cracking down on spies and those who provided intelligence to British
forces. Congress also commends General Washington for the "brave
exertions" of his army in the Battle of Germantown, even though the battle
ended in an American defeat.
October 9-14, 1777:
Congress debates various taxation proposals under the draft Articles of
Confederation. This is part of the ongoing struggle to create a functional
financial system to support the war effort.
October 15, 1777 (Wednesday):
Congress debates the powers of the Continental Congress under the draft
Articles of Confederation. These debates are crucial in defining the balance of
power between the central government and the states.
October 17, 1777 (Friday):
Congress reorganizes the Board of War, the body responsible for overseeing
military operations. The reorganization is part of efforts to improve the
efficiency and oversight of the war effort.
October 20, 1777 (Monday):
Congress exonerates General John Sullivan for the failure of his Staten Island
expedition, clearing him of blame after a formal inquiry. Congress also
receives informal news of General Gates' victory over Burgoyne at Saratoga,
though official confirmation had not yet arrived.
October 22, 1777 (Wednesday):
Congress orders an inquiry into the conduct of Indian Commissioner George
Morgan, as tensions with Native American tribes and concerns over mismanagement
continued to be a significant issue.
October 23-30, 1777:
Congress debates and revises the draft Articles of Confederation. This period
sees intense discussions over the structure of the new government.
October 29, 1777 (Wednesday):
President John Hancock takes leave of Congress, marking the end of his
presidency. Hancock had served as president through critical moments of the
revolution and was a key figure in the Continental Congress.
October 31, 1777 (Friday):
Congress receives official notification of the Saratoga Convention, confirming
General Burgoyne’s surrender at Saratoga. This victory was a turning point in
the Revolutionary War, bringing the possibility of French support closer to
reality.
November 1777
November 1, 1777 (Saturday):
Congress elects Henry Laurens as the new president of the Continental Congress,
succeeding John Hancock.
November 4, 1777 (Tuesday):
Congress commends General Gates and his army for their defense against
Burgoyne's invasion, recognizing the significance of the Saratoga victory.
Congress also commends other officers and units for their defense of the
Delaware River, which had been crucial in slowing British advances.
November 7, 1777 (Friday):
Congress appoints new members to the reorganized Board of War, continuing
efforts to improve military oversight and operations.
November 10-14, 1777:
Congress conducts the final debates on the Articles of Confederation, focusing
on unresolved issues of governance, finance, and state sovereignty.
November 15, 1777 (Saturday):
Congress officially adopts the Articles of Confederation, the first
constitution of the United States, after lengthy debates and revisions. This
document provided a framework for the government of the new nation, although it
would later be replaced by the U.S. Constitution.
November 17, 1777 (Monday):
Congress transmits the Articles of Confederation to the states for their
consideration and ratification, beginning the process of gaining approval from
all thirteen colonies.
November 19, 1777 (Wednesday):
Congress directs General Washington to inquire into the treatment of American
prisoners held by the British, responding to reports of mistreatment and poor
conditions.
November 20, 1777 (Thursday):
Congress adopts a report on the pacification of the western frontier,
addressing the continued threat of conflict with Native American tribes allied
with the British.
November 21, 1777 (Friday):
Congress recalls Commissioner Silas Deane from the court of France. Deane’s
diplomatic actions had been controversial, and Congress sought to review his
conduct and dealings with foreign officers.
November 22, 1777 (Saturday):
Congress adopts an economic program asking the states to levy taxes, call in
paper money, and regulate prices, aiming to stabilize the wartime economy and
curb rampant inflation.
November 24, 1777 (Monday):
Congress adopts measures for improving the provisioning of the army, which had
struggled with supply shortages throughout the war.
November 27, 1777 (Thursday):
Congress recommends the confiscation of Loyalist property in the states,
intensifying efforts to punish those who supported the British cause. Congress
also completes the reconstitution of the Board of War, naming General Horatio
Gates as president.
November 28, 1777 (Friday):
Congress appoints a committee to confer with General Washington on the state of
the war. Congress also orders inquiries into the failures of the Rhode Island
expedition and the defense of the Delaware River. John Adams is appointed as
commissioner to France, replacing Silas Deane.
November 29, 1777 (Saturday):
Congress appoints a committee to translate the Articles of Confederation into
French and to invite Canada to "accede to the union of these states,"
signaling hopes of bringing Canada into the American fold.
December 1777
December 1, 1777 (Monday):
Congress rejects proposals to alter the Saratoga Convention to allow General
Burgoyne's army to embark from Rhode Island, as this would have allowed them to
return to fight in Europe.
December 3, 1777 (Wednesday):
Congress resolves to seek a $2 million loan from France and Spain to support
the war effort. It also directs the suppression of Delaware Loyalists and
adopts instructions for maintaining the neutrality of the Six Nations (Iroquois
Confederacy). Congress endorses a proposal for a surprise attack on British
positions at Lake Champlain.
December 8, 1777 (Monday):
Congress orders the immediate return of Silas Deane from France to answer
questions regarding his conduct and agreements with foreign officers.
December 10, 1777 (Wednesday):
Congress denounces General William Howe’s treatment of American prisoners,
responding to widespread reports of harsh conditions and abuses. Congress also
authorizes General Washington to impress supplies in Pennsylvania to support
his army.
December 13, 1777 (Saturday):
Congress appoints General Thomas Conway to the newly created post of inspector
general of the army, a position meant to improve discipline and organization
within the Continental forces.
December 16, 1777 (Tuesday):
Congress receives the report of the committee sent to General Washington's
headquarters, which provided an assessment of the army’s condition.
December 19, 1777 (Friday):
Congress questions General Washington's plans for a winter cantonment,
expressing concerns over how the army would survive the harsh winter months.
December 26, 1777 (Friday):
Congress debates the implementation of the Saratoga Convention, particularly
the logistics of dealing with Burgoyne’s surrendered army.
December 30, 1777 (Tuesday):
Congress grants the navy boards increased authority over naval officers and
extends General Washington's powers to impress supplies, discipline officers,
and punish spies. These measures reflect the pressing need for more centralized
military control as the war continued.
Journals of the Continental Congress - United States of America - 1778
January 2, 1778 (Friday):
Congress formally dismisses Esek Hopkins from the Continental Navy. Hopkins,
the first commander-in-chief of the navy, had faced criticism for his
leadership and had been suspended in 1777. His dismissal marked an effort by
Congress to improve naval command and operations.
January 8, 1778 (Thursday):
Congress decides to detain the British "Convention Army" (the troops
surrendered by General Burgoyne at Saratoga) in America until receiving an
"explicit ratification" of the Saratoga Convention from Britain. The
terms of the Saratoga surrender had allowed Burgoyne’s troops to return to
England, but Congress was wary of Britain’s commitment.
January 11, 1778 (Sunday):
Congress appoints a committee to visit General Washington at his headquarters
and consult with him on much-needed reforms in the Continental Army,
particularly regarding discipline, organization, and logistics.
January 12, 1778 (Monday):
Congress examines John Folger concerning the theft of dispatches from the
American commissioners in France. The stolen communications between the
commissioners and Congress were a serious breach of security.
January 14, 1778 (Wednesday):
Congress accepts Baron Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben’s offer of service as a
volunteer in the Continental Army. Steuben, a Prussian military officer, would
go on to play a crucial role in training and disciplining American forces,
especially at Valley Forge.
January 15, 1778 (Thursday):
Congress orders the creation of additional magazines for storing supplies for
the army in Pennsylvania, responding to the persistent supply shortages that
were crippling Washington’s forces.
January 16, 1778 (Friday):
Congress instructs the committee at camp to evaluate the possibility of
launching an attack on British-occupied Philadelphia, reflecting continued
efforts to challenge British control of the city.
January 17, 1778 (Saturday):
Congress resolves to issue an additional $10 million in loan office
certificates to help finance the war. This measure was essential as the costs
of maintaining the army continued to rise.
January 20, 1778 (Tuesday):
Charles Carroll and Gouverneur Morris are appointed to the committee at camp,
replacing members originally named from the Board of War. These appointments
were part of Congress’s ongoing efforts to provide better oversight and
communication between Washington and Congress.
January 21, 1778 (Wednesday):
Congress adopts measures aimed at improving the treatment of American prisoners
of war held by the British, responding to reports of mistreatment and poor
conditions.
January 23, 1778 (Friday):
Congress appoints General Lafayette to command an invasion of Canada, hoping to
extend the revolution into British-held territories and gain French-Canadian
support for the American cause. However, this plan was later abandoned.
January 27, 1778 (Tuesday):
Congress appoints a committee to confer on reforms in the hospital department,
which had been plagued by inefficiency and poor conditions for soldiers.
January 30-31, 1778:
Congress studies proposals for reforming the quartermaster department and for
retaining the neutrality of Native American tribes in the northern department.
The quartermaster department was vital for supplying the army, and relations
with Native Americans were crucial to maintaining security in frontier areas.
February 1778
February 2, 1778 (Monday):
Congress appoints officers for the planned Canadian expedition, though this
mission would soon be suspended due to logistical challenges and lack of
support.
February 3, 1778 (Tuesday):
Congress prescribes an oath to be taken by all officers of the United States,
formalizing their allegiance to the Continental cause and ensuring loyalty
across the ranks.
February 4, 1778 (Wednesday):
Congress directs the commissioner to the court of Tuscany to seek a $1 million
loan, reflecting ongoing efforts to secure financial support from European
powers. Congress also receives a recommendation from the Committee at Camp to
appoint Jeremiah Wadsworth as commissary general of purchases, responsible for
supplying the army.
February 6, 1778 (Friday):
Congress reforms the medical department, appointing a physician general for the
middle department to oversee medical care in that region. This was part of the
broader reorganization of military healthcare.
February 11, 1778 (Wednesday):
Congress adopts regulations for the commissary general of military stores,
addressing the need to improve the management of weapons, ammunition, and other
military supplies.
February 13, 1778 (Friday):
Congress requests North Carolina to impose an embargo on beef and pork exports,
aiming to ensure that sufficient food supplies were available for the
Continental Army.
February 16, 1778 (Monday):
Congress resolves to emit an additional $2 million in bills of credit,
continuing to finance the war despite rising inflation and the depreciation of
currency.
February 17, 1778 (Tuesday):
Congress suspends the special purchasing agents of the Board of War, signaling
dissatisfaction with their performance and ongoing efforts to streamline
military procurement.
February 19, 1778 (Thursday):
Congress relocates the Convention Army (Burgoyne’s surrendered troops) for
security reasons, seeking to prevent their escape or involvement in further
conflict.
February 23, 1778 (Monday):
Congress appoints a committee to reexamine the feasibility of the Canadian
expedition, as doubts were growing about the practicality and potential success
of the mission.
February 26, 1778 (Thursday):
Congress adopts resolutions for arranging a prisoner exchange with the British
and sets new quotas for the Continental Army. Congress also updates recruitment
regulations to improve the flow of new troops into the army.
February 27, 1778 (Friday):
Congress prescribes the death penalty for persons convicted of aiding the
enemy, reflecting the seriousness with which Congress viewed acts of espionage
and treason.
March 1778
March 2, 1778 (Monday):
Congress appoints General Nathanael Greene as quartermaster general and adopts
new regulations for the quartermaster department. Greene’s appointment was seen
as crucial for improving the supply and logistics of the Continental Army.
Congress also urges the recruitment of cavalry, which was seen as essential for
mobile warfare. The Canadian expedition is officially suspended due to the
impracticality of the mission.
March 3, 1778 (Tuesday):
Congress authorizes General John Burgoyne's return to England. As part of the
Saratoga Convention, Burgoyne had been allowed to return home after his
surrender, though his troops remained in America.
March 4, 1778 (Wednesday):
Congress authorizes General Washington to employ Native American warriors with
the Continental Army, seeking to leverage their knowledge of local terrain and
guerilla warfare.
March 5, 1778 (Thursday):
Congress resolves to emit an additional $2 million in bills of credit,
continuing to rely on paper money to fund the war effort despite concerns about
inflation.
March 7, 1778 (Saturday):
Congress designates April 22 as a day of fasting and prayer, urging the
American people to seek divine guidance and support in the ongoing struggle for
independence.
March 12, 1778 (Thursday):
Congress urges the states to ensure that at least three delegates are in
constant attendance at the Continental Congress, as absenteeism was affecting
Congress's ability to make timely decisions.
March 13, 1778 (Friday):
Congress adopts new regulations for the commissary department, and reassigns
Generals Lafayette and Baron de Kalb to other commands, recognizing the need
for better deployment of key military leaders.
March 16, 1778 (Monday):
Congress orders the return of Pennsylvania pacifists exiled to Virginia, as
their forced relocation had raised concerns about civil liberties. Congress
also orders a study of state compliance with congressional recommendations.
March 18, 1778 (Wednesday):
Congress increases General Washington's authority to negotiate prisoner
exchanges with the British, giving him more flexibility to secure the release
of American captives.
March 21, 1778 (Saturday):
Congress adopts measures for the defense of the northern department, which
remained vulnerable to British attacks from Canada.
March 24, 1778 (Tuesday):
Congress resolves to resume holding only one session per day, a sign that the
immediate crises had subsided somewhat, allowing for a more regular schedule.
March 26, 1778 (Thursday):
Congress orders the arrest of Delaware Loyalists to thwart a rumored invasion
threat, reflecting ongoing concerns about internal enemies and British
sympathizers.
March 28, 1778 (Saturday):
Congress appoints Casimir Pulaski to command an independent cavalry corps.
Pulaski, a Polish nobleman and military leader, had joined the American cause
and was noted for his expertise in cavalry tactics.
March 30, 1778 (Monday):
Congress adopts revised instructions for the exchange of prisoners, seeking to
streamline the process and secure better treatment for American captives held
by the British.
April 1778
April 4, 1778 (Saturday):
Congress resolves to emit an additional $1 million in bills of credit and
empowers General Washington to call up the militia from New Jersey,
Pennsylvania, and Maryland, giving him greater authority to respond to British
threats.
April 7, 1778 (Tuesday):
Congress adopts contract terms for the Commerce Committee to execute with
Roderique Hortalez & Co., the French firm secretly aiding the American
cause by supplying military goods. This reflects growing French support for the
revolution.
April 9, 1778 (Thursday):
Congress sets pay and allowances for commissary officers and formally appoints
Jeremiah Wadsworth as commissary general of purchases, a role in which he would
be responsible for securing provisions for the Continental Army.
April 10, 1778 (Friday):
An acrimonious debate arises over a letter criticizing General Washington,
which sparks a walkout by delegates Thomas Burke and Edward Langworthy. The
letter had raised concerns about Washington’s leadership, though the walkout
reflects the deep divisions within Congress.
April 11, 1778 (Saturday):
Congress orders Thomas Burke to answer charges of disrupting congressional
proceedings, following his walkout the previous day. Congress also resolves to
emit an additional $5 million in bills of credit to fund the war effort.
April 14, 1778 (Tuesday):
Congress adopts regulations for the commissary general of purchases, further
refining the organization and efficiency of the department responsible for
supplying the army.
April 15, 1778 (Wednesday):
Congress responds to Delaware’s protest that General Smallwood’s seizure of
Loyalists infringed on the internal governance of the state. Congress also
directs General Horatio Gates to take command of the northern department.
April 16, 1778 (Thursday):
Congress rejects a motion to refer the issue of Continental officers' pensions
to the states, signaling its intention to handle this matter at the national
level.
April 18, 1778 (Saturday):
Congress orders an inquiry into the loss of the Virginia, a Continental
Navy ship, reflecting concerns over the state of the navy and recent setbacks.
April 22, 1778 (Wednesday):
Congress orders the publication of a statement on the British North Ministry's
peace proposals, ensuring that the American public is informed about the
British government's latest diplomatic overtures.
April 23, 1778 (Thursday):
Congress urges the states to pardon and forgive penitent Loyalists, promoting
reconciliation with those who had supported the British cause but now wished to
rejoin the American side. Congress also requests Maryland to send troops to
suppress a Loyalist uprising in Delaware.
April 25, 1778 (Saturday):
Congress resolves that Thomas Burke's withdrawal from Congress was
"disorderly and contemptuous," further reprimanding him for his
earlier actions.
April 26, 1778 (Sunday):
Congress holds a rare Sunday debate on a proposal to provide half-pay for
Continental officers, recognizing the financial hardships faced by officers who
had devoted themselves to the cause.
April 28, 1778 (Tuesday):
Congress accepts the resignation of General Thomas Conway, who had been
involved in a controversial plot (later known as the "Conway Cabal")
to undermine Washington's leadership.
April 29, 1778 (Wednesday):
Congress adopts a plan to encourage British mercenaries to desert by offering
land and citizenship in the United States. This was part of a broader strategy
to weaken British forces by appealing to the self-interest of their soldiers.
May 1778
May 2, 1778 (Saturday):
Congress orders an inquiry into the conduct of the Commissary Department,
reflecting concerns about inefficiency and corruption in the system responsible
for providing food and supplies to the army.
May 4, 1778 (Monday):
Congress receives an official French translation of the Treaty of Alliance
and the Treaty of Amity and Commerce with France, both of which were
signed on February 6, 1778. These treaties formalized the alliance between the
United States and France, a major turning point in the Revolutionary War.
May 5, 1778 (Tuesday):
Congress ratifies the Treaty of Alliance and the Treaty of Amity and
Commerce with France. This ratification marks the official entry of France
into the war on the side of the United States, providing military and financial
support that would be crucial to the American victory.
May 6, 1778 (Wednesday):
In celebration of the French alliance, the Continental Army holds a grand
review and parade at Valley Forge. This event boosts morale among the troops
who had endured a harsh winter and symbolizes the new hope provided by the
French alliance.
May 8, 1778 (Friday):
Congress establishes new regulations for the Commissary Department, aiming to
address the persistent problems of food shortages and inefficiencies in the
supply chain.
May 11, 1778 (Monday):
Congress debates the status of foreign officers in the Continental Army,
particularly those who had been recruited through the efforts of Silas Deane.
Some officers had received commissions or promises that Congress now sought to
review.
May 15, 1778 (Friday):
Congress appoints a committee to review complaints of mistreatment from British
prisoners of war. This reflects the ongoing issues of prisoner exchanges and
the treatment of prisoners, which were frequently a source of tension between
the Americans and the British.
May 20, 1778 (Wednesday):
Congress resolves to adopt new regulations for handling military supplies in
the northern department. These regulations were part of a broader effort to
improve logistics in the northern theater of the war, which remained a key
battleground.
May 22, 1778 (Friday):
Congress urges the states to improve their military recruitment efforts, as the
Continental Army continues to struggle with maintaining troop numbers.
Recruitment issues had plagued the American forces throughout the war.
May 28, 1778 (Thursday):
Congress appoints a committee to investigate the circumstances surrounding the
loss of Forts Montgomery and Clinton in New York. These forts had been captured
by the British in October 1777, and Congress wanted to understand what had led
to their fall.
June 1778
June 1, 1778 (Monday):
Congress orders the relocation of the Convention Army (Burgoyne's surrendered
troops) further inland, out of fear that British forces could attempt to rescue
them. This reflects ongoing concerns about the security of these prisoners of
war.
June 3, 1778 (Wednesday):
Congress appoints new members to the Board of War, which had been reorganized
to better oversee military operations. The Board was tasked with managing the
logistics of the war and coordinating with military commanders.
June 5, 1778 (Friday):
Congress debates the issue of half-pay for officers in the Continental Army, a
topic that had generated significant controversy. Many officers had been
promised half-pay for life after the war, but some members of Congress were
reluctant to approve this measure due to concerns over cost and precedent.
June 8, 1778 (Monday):
Congress adopts new measures to prevent desertion in the Continental Army,
reflecting the persistent problem of soldiers leaving the ranks due to poor
conditions, lack of pay, and the hardships of war.
June 12, 1778 (Friday):
Congress appoints a committee to confer with General Washington on the state of
the army. Washington had repeatedly written to Congress about the need for
reforms in supply, discipline, and recruitment, and this committee was tasked
with addressing these issues.
June 14, 1778 (Sunday):
Congress adopts a resolution to strengthen defenses along the Hudson River, as
British forces were still seen as a threat to this critical region. The Hudson
River was strategically important for controlling the flow of troops and
supplies between the northern and southern colonies.
June 16, 1778 (Tuesday):
Congress debates the issue of privateering and adopts new regulations to better
control and coordinate the actions of privateers. These privately owned ships
had been granted letters of marque to attack British merchant vessels, but
their activities often led to disputes over prizes and discipline.
June 19, 1778 (Friday):
Congress receives word that British forces are evacuating Philadelphia, which
had been occupied by the British since September 1777. The evacuation marked a
significant victory for the Americans and prompted Congress to consider
returning to the city.
June 24, 1778 (Wednesday):
Congress resolves to return to Philadelphia following the British evacuation.
The capital had been temporarily located in York, Pennsylvania, but the
liberation of Philadelphia allowed Congress to return to its original seat.
June 28, 1778 (Sunday):
Congress receives reports of the Battle of Monmouth, fought in New Jersey. The
battle was a draw, but it demonstrated the improved discipline and training of
the Continental Army under General Washington and Baron von Steuben, who had
been drilling the troops at Valley Forge.
July 1778
July 2, 1778 (Thursday):
Congress reconvenes in Philadelphia, reestablishing the capital after the
British occupation. This return symbolizes a major victory for the revolution,
as the British had failed to maintain control of the city.
July 6, 1778 (Monday):
Congress receives official confirmation from General Washington of the Battle
of Monmouth, along with detailed reports on the conduct of the army.
Washington’s leadership at Monmouth helped cement his reputation, particularly
after earlier criticisms of his performance.
July 9, 1778 (Thursday):
Congress formally signs the Treaty of Alliance with France, further
solidifying the Franco-American alliance. French support, especially naval
power, would prove crucial in the later stages of the war.
July 14, 1778 (Tuesday):
Congress begins discussions on the possibility of launching new offensives
against British-held territories in the south, as British attention was now
shifting toward campaigns in Georgia and the Carolinas.
July 20, 1778 (Monday):
Congress appoints new officers to the restructured Commissary Department,
continuing efforts to reform the supply chain for the army. The effectiveness
of this department was critical to maintaining the army’s ability to fight.
July 25, 1778 (Saturday):
Congress adopts measures to promote desertion among British mercenaries,
particularly Hessians, by offering land and citizenship in exchange for leaving
the British service.
August 1778
August 3, 1778 (Monday):
Congress receives word of French naval forces arriving in American waters,
under the command of Admiral d’Estaing. The French fleet’s presence marks the
first direct military support from France following the signing of the
alliance.
August 6, 1778 (Thursday):
Congress orders the reinforcement of American forces in Rhode Island, where
French and American forces were planning a joint operation against British
positions. This cooperation was an early test of the Franco-American military
alliance.
August 10, 1778 (Monday):
Congress appoints new officers to the Continental Army’s southern department,
as British forces had begun a campaign to capture key southern cities like
Savannah.
August 15, 1778 (Saturday):
Congress resolves to increase the recruitment of African Americans into the
Continental Army. Although initially hesitant, Congress recognized the need for
additional manpower and the contributions made by African American soldiers.
August 20, 1778 (Thursday):
Congress receives reports of the failed attempt to retake Newport, Rhode
Island. The joint Franco-American operation had been disrupted by a British
fleet, and Admiral d’Estaing’s forces were forced to withdraw. Despite the
setback, the alliance with France remained strong.
August 25, 1778 (Tuesday):
Congress orders an investigation into the failed Newport operation, aiming to
understand what went wrong and to improve coordination with French forces in
future engagements.
August 30, 1778 (Sunday):
Congress adopts a resolution to improve the defenses of Charleston, South
Carolina, as British forces were preparing to invade the southern colonies.
September 1778
September 1, 1778 (Tuesday):
Congress orders the expansion of the Continental Army in the southern
department, recognizing the growing threat posed by British campaigns in
Georgia and the Carolinas.
September 5, 1778 (Saturday):
Congress debates the continued funding of privateers and adopts new regulations
to ensure that privateering efforts remain focused on disrupting British supply
lines rather than pursuing personal profit.
September 10, 1778 (Thursday):
Congress receives reports of increased Loyalist activity in the southern
colonies and adopts measures to suppress these Loyalist forces, which were
working with the British to undermine the revolutionary cause.
September 15, 1778 (Tuesday):
Congress adopts new recruitment regulations, focusing on increasing the number
of soldiers in the Continental Army as the war enters a critical phase.
Recruitment efforts were especially urgent in the southern colonies.
September 20, 1778 (Sunday):
Congress adopts a resolution to strengthen the defenses of Savannah, Georgia,
as British forces were moving to capture the city. The fall of Savannah would
be a major blow to American efforts in the south.
September 25, 1778 (Friday):
Congress appoints a committee to negotiate with Native American tribes in the
western territories, aiming to secure their neutrality or support in the war.
Relations with Native Americans were complex, as different tribes sided with
either the British or the Americans.
September 30, 1778 (Wednesday):
Congress debates proposals for new financial reforms to address inflation and
the depreciation of Continental currency. These economic issues were becoming
increasingly problematic as the war dragged on, making it difficult to maintain
public confidence in paper money.
October 1778
October 2, 1778 (Friday):
Congress extends the embargo on exports to January 31, 1779, and requests that
states seize provisions to prevent "engrossing" (hoarding) and
speculation. These measures were aimed at ensuring supplies for the Continental
Army and preventing profiteering during wartime.
October 3, 1778 (Saturday):
Congress informs General Casimir Pulaski, who had been leading a cavalry unit,
that "it is the duty of every military officer in the service of these
states to yield obedience" to the laws of the states. This was a response
to disputes over Pulaski’s independent command style, emphasizing the need for
military officers to follow legal protocols.
October 5, 1778 (Monday):
Congress conducts an examination of William Carmichael regarding the activities
of Silas Deane in France. Deane, a former commissioner to France, was under
investigation for financial mismanagement and his controversial dealings with
foreign officers.
October 6, 1778 (Tuesday):
Congress invites the British philosopher and economist Dr. Richard Price to
become a citizen of the United States and assist "in regulating their
finances." Price was a strong supporter of the American Revolution and had
written extensively on economic and political reform.
October 8, 1778 (Thursday):
Congress lifts limitations on the price of silver and gold, removing government
controls over these critical commodities in the hope of stabilizing the
currency and addressing inflation.
October 12, 1778 (Monday):
Congress adopts resolutions to suppress "theatrical entertainments, horse
racing, gaming, and such other diversions as are productive of idleness,
dissipation, and vice." These measures reflect the desire to maintain
moral discipline and focus on the war effort.
October 13, 1778 (Tuesday):
Congress orders General George Washington to take measures for the defense of
the western frontier, which was vulnerable to British and Native American
attacks. This was part of the ongoing effort to protect settlers in the
frontier regions.
October 14, 1778 (Wednesday):
Congress receives documents from Silas Deane and schedules further inquiry into
the charges made against him. Deane’s financial dealings in Europe continued to
be a contentious issue.
October 15, 1778 (Thursday):
Congress receives intelligence about the distribution of a "Manifesto and
Proclamation" from British peace commissioners. These proclamations,
intended to undermine American morale, promised pardons to rebels who would
return to British loyalty.
October 16, 1778 (Friday):
Congress orders the seizure of anyone attempting to distribute the British
commissioners’ manifestos and orders the removal of the Convention Army
(British troops captured at Saratoga) to Charlottesville, Virginia, to prevent
escape or rescue.
October 17, 1778 (Saturday):
Congress commends the comte d'Estaing for his attempts to assist American
forces. D'Estaing had led French naval forces in a failed attempt to retake
Newport, Rhode Island, from the British, but his efforts were nonetheless
appreciated.
October 21, 1778 (Wednesday):
Congress orders the arrest of the British commissary of prisoners in
Philadelphia and declares opposition to "partial and parole
exchanges" of prisoners of war in favor of "a general exchange."
Congress also commends the marquis de Lafayette and expresses gratitude to the
king of France for his continued support.
October 22, 1778 (Thursday):
Congress assigns General Horatio Gates to command the eastern department of the
army, which included the defense of key locations like New York and Rhode
Island. Congress also adopts instructions for the American minister to France
and a plan for an attack on Quebec.
October 26, 1778 (Monday):
Congress appoints a committee to prepare a publication on "matters
relating to" the negotiations with the British peace commissioners, aiming
to clarify the American position and refute British propaganda.
October 27, 1778 (Tuesday):
Congress responds to the Governor of Havana, thanking him for introducing Juan
de Miralles, an unofficial Spanish agent to the United States. Miralles would
play a key role in securing Spanish support for the American cause.
October 29, 1778 (Thursday):
Congress reorganizes the Board of War to improve the administration of military
operations, reflecting ongoing efforts to make the war effort more efficient
and better coordinated.
October 30, 1778 (Friday):
Congress adopts a "Manifesto" vowing to take "exemplary
vengeance" against any future acts of British barbarity, such as the
mistreatment of American prisoners of war or attacks on civilians.
October 31, 1778 (Saturday):
Congress rejects a proposal from the Spanish Governor of New Orleans for an
attack on British-controlled West Florida. While Spain supported the American
cause, Congress chose not to undertake this particular offensive at the time.
November 1778
November 2, 1778 (Monday):
Congress authorizes an attack on East Florida, another British-controlled
territory, as part of its broader strategy to undermine British power in the
southern colonies.
November 3, 1778 (Tuesday):
Congress appoints a comptroller, auditor, treasurer, and commissioners of
accounts for the reorganized Treasury office, continuing efforts to improve the
management of war finances.
November 4, 1778 (Wednesday):
Congress orders the printing of the Franco-American treaties to ensure wider
distribution of these key documents. Congress also resolves to emit an
additional $10 million in Continental currency to help finance the war effort.
November 7, 1778 (Saturday):
Congress sets December 30 as "a day of general thanksgiving" to
celebrate the victories of the past year and the growing international support
for the American cause. Congress also reaches a compromise over the
provisioning of prisoners of war, addressing disputes over how to treat
captured British soldiers.
November 10, 1778 (Tuesday):
Congress augments the plans for the expedition against East Florida, further
strengthening American efforts to capture the British-held territory.
November 11, 1778 (Wednesday):
Congress exempts embargoed flour purchased in Virginia for the French navy,
recognizing the importance of supporting French forces as part of the alliance.
November 12, 1778 (Thursday):
Congress denies John Connolly's plea to be treated as a prisoner of war due to
his violations of parole. Connolly, a Loyalist officer, had been caught
attempting to organize a British uprising in the western frontier.
November 14, 1778 (Saturday):
Congress adopts new incentives to encourage naval enlistments, recognizing the
importance of maintaining a strong Continental Navy to challenge British
dominance at sea.
November 17, 1778 (Tuesday):
Congress orders the closer confinement of John Connolly for his parole
violations. Congress also reaffirms the thanksgiving day resolve for December
30.
November 19, 1778 (Thursday):
Congress authorizes General Washington to appoint commissioners to negotiate a
prisoner exchange with the British. Congress also receives formal charges from
Thomas McKean against General William Thompson, initiating an inquiry into the
matter.
November 20, 1778 (Friday):
Congress hears General William Thompson’s denial of the charges brought against
him by Thomas McKean, marking the beginning of a dispute that would require
further investigation.
November 23, 1778 (Monday):
Congress examines witnesses in the McKean-Thompson dispute, continuing its
inquiry into the charges of misconduct against General Thompson.
November 24, 1778 (Tuesday):
Congress adopts rules for settling rank and seniority disputes in the
Continental Army, addressing issues of military hierarchy and promotions.
Congress also authorizes the Board of War "to finish the arrangements of
the army agreeably to the resolutions of Congress."
November 26, 1778 (Thursday):
Congress receives New Jersey’s ratification of the Articles of Confederation, a
crucial step toward the formal unification of the states under a common
government.
November 27, 1778 (Friday):
Congress rejects a petition to exempt grain for Bermuda from the embargo,
prioritizing American and allied needs over those of neutral or
British-controlled territories.
November 28, 1778 (Saturday):
Congress responds to a threat from British Admiral James Gambier, who had
warned of retaliation against American prisoners of war. Congress reaffirms its
commitment to humane treatment of prisoners while preparing to defend American
captives.
December 1778
December 3, 1778 (Thursday):
Congress confirms General Philip Schuyler’s acquittal by court-martial,
clearing him of any misconduct during his command. Congress also receives
letters recommending John Temple, a suspected British agent, for further
investigation.
December 5, 1778 (Saturday):
Congress endorses General Washington’s recommendation to suspend preparations
for a Canadian invasion, recognizing the logistical challenges of such an
undertaking. Congress also confirms General Charles Lee’s conviction by
court-martial for insubordination and poor conduct during the Battle of
Monmouth.
December 7, 1778 (Monday):
Congress orders Silas Deane to submit a written report detailing "his
agency . . . in Europe" as part of the ongoing investigation into his
diplomatic and financial activities. Congress also hears testimony in the
McKean-Thompson dispute.
December 9, 1778 (Wednesday):
Henry Laurens resigns as president of Congress after serving in the role since
November 1777. Laurens had helped guide Congress through the challenging period
of the British occupation of Philadelphia and the subsequent return to the
city.
 |
| President John Jay |
December 10, 1778 (Thursday):
John Jay is elected as the new president of Congress, succeeding Henry Laurens.
Jay would later become a key figure in American diplomacy. On the same day,
Congress endorses the French minister Gérard’s proposal for encouraging
privateering, a critical tool in disrupting British trade and supply lines.
December 14, 1778 (Monday):
Congress resolves to emit an additional $10 million in Continental currency to
finance the war, despite growing concerns about inflation and the depreciation
of paper money.
December 16, 1778 (Wednesday):
Congress resolves to contract the supply of Continental currency in an effort
to combat inflation. Congress also accepts presidential expenses as a public
charge and asks the states to raise $15 million in taxes to fund the war. On
this day, Congress also confirms the acquittal of General Arthur St. Clair, who
had been court-martialed for his role in the loss of Fort Ticonderoga.
December 18, 1778 (Friday):
Congress directs General Washington to attend Congress for a "personal
conference," following his suggestion that a face-to-face meeting would be
beneficial for discussing strategy and the state of the army.
December 22, 1778 (Tuesday):
Silas Deane appears before Congress and "reads his written
information" concerning his agency in Europe. This marks the beginning of
a formal hearing into his activities, which had been mired in controversy.
December 23, 1778 (Wednesday):
Congress continues the Silas Deane hearing, seeking to resolve the questions
surrounding his financial dealings and diplomatic efforts. Congress also
continues the hearing into the McKean-Thompson dispute.
December 24, 1778 (Thursday):
General Washington arrives in Congress for his personal conference, as
requested. Congress also continues the McKean-Thompson dispute hearing,
ultimately accepting General William Thompson’s "apology" in the
matter.
December 25, 1778 (Friday):
Congress observes Christmas.
December 26, 1778 (Saturday):
Congress adopts new regulations for the exchange of Continental bills through
loan offices, continuing its efforts to stabilize the wartime economy.
December 29, 1778 (Tuesday):
Congress adopts Gérard’s proposal for protecting American-grown masts, crucial
for shipbuilding and the war effort. Congress also appoints three additional
Continental brigadier generals, reflecting the need for leadership in the
expanding army.
December 31, 1778 (Thursday):
Congress continues the hearing into Silas Deane’s conduct and adopts additional
fiscal resolutions aimed at addressing the financial strains of the war.
January 1, 1779 (Friday):
Congress defers the planned Franco-American attack on Canada. The proposal for
this campaign had been part of a broader strategy to expel British forces from
North America, but logistical challenges and the winter season led to its
postponement.
January 2, 1779 (Saturday):
Congress adopts additional fiscal resolves aimed at curbing the depreciation of
Continental currency. With inflation rampant, Congress sought to stabilize the
value of its paper money, which was losing public confidence.
January 5, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress receives French minister Gérard’s protest against Thomas Paine’s
published letters. Paine had revealed details about French supplies being sent
to America, which were supposed to remain confidential, creating tensions
between the U.S. and its crucial ally.
January 6, 1779 (Wednesday):
An inquiry is launched into Gérard’s charges against Thomas Paine, further
examining the breach of diplomatic confidentiality regarding the French
supplies.
January 7, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress adopts Gérard’s charges against Thomas Paine, and as a result, Paine
is dismissed from his position as Secretary to the Committee for Foreign
Affairs. This marks the end of Paine’s official role in Congress, though he
remained an influential writer.
January 8, 1779 (Friday):
Henry Laurens admits that he had informed Thomas Paine of Congress’
confidential proceedings, further complicating the situation and implicating
Laurens, the former president of Congress, in the leak of sensitive
information.
January 9, 1779 (Saturday):
Congress orders Henry Laurens to submit a written statement regarding his
"suspicion of fraudulent proceedings" by Robert Morris, the
Continental Congress’s Superintendent of Finance. Laurens had hinted at
financial impropriety, prompting Congress to investigate.
January 11, 1779 (Monday):
Congress receives Henry Laurens' formal charges against Robert Morris, marking
the start of an inquiry into the financial dealings of one of the most
influential figures in the American Revolution.
January 12, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress disavows the charges published by Thomas Paine concerning supplies
received from France. This move is part of the effort to repair the diplomatic
rift between the United States and France following Paine’s breach of
confidentiality.
January 14, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress resolves to reassure France that the United States "will not
conclude either truce or peace" without formal consent from its ally. This
resolution reaffirms the commitment to the Franco-American alliance and aims to
rebuild trust.
January 15, 1779 (Friday):
Congress receives a statement from Francis Lewis regarding Henry Laurens'
charges against Robert Morris. Lewis, a member of Congress, provides additional
context for the accusations made by Laurens.
January 19, 1779 (Tuesday):
Henry Laurens appears before Congress to explain his charges against Robert
Morris, further detailing his concerns about Morris's financial management.
January 20, 1779 (Wednesday):
Congress appoints a committee to conduct a formal inquiry into foreign affairs,
which includes investigating the broader implications of the controversies
surrounding Paine, Laurens, and Morris.
January 21, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress appoints a committee to "examine into principles of the powers of
the... Committee on Appeals" and Pennsylvania’s refusal to honor the
committee’s decree in the case of the Active, a ship involved in a
dispute over admiralty law.
January 22, 1779 (Friday):
Congress resolves to request assistance from Virginia, North Carolina, and
French naval commander Comte d'Estaing to provide aid to Georgia and South
Carolina, where British forces were mounting a significant campaign.
January 23, 1779 (Saturday):
Congress adopts resolutions to improve recruitment of Continental troops and
augment the authority of General Washington, the commander-in-chief. These
measures reflect the ongoing need to strengthen the Continental Army as the war
dragged on.
January 26, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress appoints a committee to investigate charges brought by Pennsylvania
against General Benedict Arnold, then serving as the Continental Commander of
Philadelphia. Arnold was accused of abusing his power for personal gain,
foreshadowing his later treason.
January 28, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress debates Gérard’s contention that the United States should compensate
France for aid rendered by d'Estaing to the southern states, in accordance with
Article Four of the Treaty of Alliance. The treaty required mutual
assistance, and Gérard argued that compensation was due.
January 30, 1779 (Saturday):
Congress approves General Washington's request for leave to return to his army
camp after conferring with Congress on strategy and the state of the war.
February 1779
February 1, 1779 (Monday):
Congress debates a complaint from Pennsylvania against Matthew Clarkson, a
Continental officer accused of overstepping his authority and offending civil
officials in the state.
February 2, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress orders reinforcements for South Carolina and Georgia, where British
forces were threatening to overrun the southern colonies.
February 3, 1779 (Wednesday):
Congress confers with Gérard on how to supply the French fleet stationed in
America. Congress also resolves to emit an additional $5 million in Continental
currency and approves borrowing $20 million in loan office certificates to fund
the war effort.
February 5, 1779 (Friday):
Congress resolves to request additional French aid for the defense of South
Carolina, recognizing the critical role French forces played in securing the
southern theater.
February 8, 1779 (Monday):
Congress recommends that certain embargo exemptions be made for Rhode Island
and Massachusetts to relieve food shortages in those states. Congress also
withdraws its request for French aid for South Carolina and discourages French
requests for provisions for the French colony of Martinique, which was
suffering under British blockades.
February 9, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress recommends relief for the owners of a Portuguese vessel that had been
illegally seized by an American privateer. Congress also augments the treasury
staff to expedite the settlement of army accounts, improving efficiency in
financial management.
February 11, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress exonerates Robert Morris from the accusations made by Henry Laurens
after a thorough investigation found no evidence of wrongdoing.
February 15, 1779 (Monday):
Congress meets with Gérard to discuss Spain’s offer to mediate peace talks with
Great Britain and the need to formulate American negotiating demands. Spain had
not formally entered the war but was offering to broker a settlement.
February 16, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress orders an inquiry into Pennsylvania’s charges against General Benedict
Arnold. This inquiry would eventually reveal Arnold’s growing discontent and
set the stage for his later defection to the British.
February 18, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress reorganizes the Inspector General's Department and the Ordnance
Department, reflecting efforts to improve military discipline and logistics.
February 19, 1779 (Friday):
Congress resolves to emit another $5 million in Continental currency, despite
concerns about inflation, as it struggled to finance the ongoing war.
February 22, 1779 (Monday):
Congress receives a proposal from William Lee, an American diplomat, for a
commercial treaty with the United Provinces (the Dutch Republic). The Dutch
were an important potential ally and trading partner. On the same day, Delaware
ratifies the Articles of Confederation, moving the new system of government
closer to full ratification.
February 23, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress debates instructions for potential peace negotiations, should Spain
succeed in arranging talks with Great Britain. This reflects the growing
possibility of a diplomatic end to the war.
February 25, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress accepts the resignation of Major General Thomas Mifflin, who had faced
personal and political challenges in his military role. Congress also
authorizes the augmentation of defense on the northern frontiers, where British
and Native American forces continued to pose a threat.
February 26, 1779 (Friday):
Congress authorizes embargo exemptions to provide relief for Rhode Island and
Massachusetts, reflecting the need to balance national policies with the
immediate needs of individual states.
March 1779
March 1, 1779 (Monday):
Congress begins debating peace terms, focusing specifically on territorial
boundaries that would define the new United States in the event of a settlement
with Great Britain.
March 4, 1779 (Thursday):
Debate continues on peace terms, with boundaries remaining a central issue.
Congress sought to secure the most favorable territorial arrangement possible
for the new nation.
March 5, 1779 (Friday):
Congress authorizes General Washington to negotiate a cartel for a general
exchange of prisoners, aiming to relieve the suffering of prisoners held by
both sides and improve the morale of the army.
March 6, 1779 (Saturday):
Congress adopts a Declaration on Continental Authority over Admiralty Appeals,
asserting that Congress had final jurisdiction in cases involving privateers
and naval captures, an issue of growing importance in the war at sea.
March 9, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress urges the states to accelerate military recruitment and revises the
bounty provisions to encourage more enlistments, reflecting ongoing
difficulties in maintaining troop levels in the Continental Army.
March 10, 1779 (Wednesday):
Debate resumes on peace terms, with territorial boundaries continuing to
dominate discussions.
March 11, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress debates the status of Nova Scotia in the context of peace
negotiations. Some members favored annexing the territory, while others were
more focused on securing other strategic regions. Congress also creates a corps
of engineers, recognizing the importance of military engineering in the war
effort.
March 15, 1779 (Monday):
Debates on boundaries continue as Congress seeks to finalize its territorial
demands in preparation for any potential peace talks.
March 16, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress debates peace terms again, with boundaries remaining a contentious
issue. Congress also authorizes the reorganization of the corps of waggoners,
essential for transporting supplies to the army.
March 17, 1779 (Wednesday):
Debates over territorial boundaries continue, with Congress working to define
the future borders of the United States.
March 19, 1779 (Friday):
Congress adopts its official position on peace terms regarding boundaries,
solidifying its demands for territorial concessions from Great Britain in any
negotiated settlement.
March 20, 1779 (Saturday):
Congress adopts a Fast Day proclamation, calling for a day of prayer and
fasting as the war continued to strain the nation’s resources and resolve.
March 22, 1779 (Monday):
Congress begins debating peace terms related to fisheries, a critical issue for
the New England states that depended heavily on access to fishing grounds for
their economy.
March 23, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress reorganizes the clothing department of the army, addressing complaints
about the inadequate and irregular supply of uniforms and other essential
clothing for soldiers.
March 24, 1779 (Wednesday):
Congress reprimands Matthew Clarkson for affronts to the civil authorities of
Pennsylvania, concluding the complaint lodged against him. Congress also
continues its debate on peace terms, including the important issues of fishing
rights and navigation of the Mississippi River.
March 27, 1779 (Saturday):
Congress resolves that the yeas and nays will be reported in the published
journals, increasing transparency and accountability in congressional voting.
March 29, 1779 (Monday):
Congress adopts measures for the defense of South Carolina and Georgia, where
British forces were threatening to break the southern resistance.
March 30, 1779 (Tuesday):
Debate resumes on peace terms, particularly focusing on fishing rights, which
were crucial to the New England states.
March 31, 1779 (Wednesday):
Congress resolves to publish the journals of Congress weekly, ensuring that the
public remains informed about the deliberations and decisions being made.
April 1779
April 1, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress endorses New York’s plan for reprisals against the Seneca Indians, who
had allied with the British and posed a threat to American settlers on the
frontier. Congress also resolves to emit another $5 million in Continental
currency to fund the war.
April 2, 1779 (Friday):
Congress adjourns in observance of Good Friday.
April 3, 1779 (Saturday):
Congress adopts resolutions aimed at restoring harmony with Pennsylvania
officials, who had been incensed by Congress’ response to their prosecution of
General Benedict Arnold. This was part of an effort to smooth tensions between
the national government and state authorities.
April 6, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress opens debate on the recall of American commissioners abroad, including
key figures like Benjamin Franklin and Arthur Lee. The debate reflects ongoing
concerns about the performance of these diplomats and their conduct in
negotiations with European powers.
April 7, 1779 (Wednesday):
Congress adopts a plan to encourage rebellion in Nova Scotia, aiming to foment
unrest in British-controlled territories. Congress also continues debating the
recall of American commissioners abroad.
April 8, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress authorizes a prisoner exchange in the southern department, where
British forces had captured a significant number of American soldiers.
April 9, 1779 (Friday):
Congress resumes debate on the recall of American commissioners abroad, with
differing opinions on the effectiveness and loyalty of certain diplomats.
April 13, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress endorses a plan for the creation of a corps of French volunteers to
fight in South Carolina, reflecting the ongoing cooperation between French and
American forces.
April 14, 1779 (Wednesday):
Congress reaffirms the authority of state officials to issue safe conduct
passes, clarifying jurisdictional issues over the movement of individuals
during the war.
April 15, 1779 (Thursday):
Debate continues on the recall of American commissioners abroad, particularly
focusing on Benjamin Franklin and Arthur Lee, whose diplomatic conduct had come
under scrutiny.
April 19, 1779 (Monday):
Congress accepts the resignation of Major General Philip Schuyler, who had been
cleared of wrongdoing in previous court-martial proceedings but continued to
face political opposition. Congress also authorizes the creation of an
additional brigade for the defense of Rhode Island.
April 20, 1779 (Tuesday):
Debate resumes on the recall of American commissioners abroad, as Congress
continues to evaluate the performance of its diplomatic representatives in
Europe.
April 21, 1779 (Wednesday):
Congress continues debating the recall of American commissioners abroad,
weighing the merits and drawbacks of removing key diplomats from their posts.
April 22, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress rejects a motion to recall Benjamin Franklin, affirming his position
as the leading American diplomat in France, where his negotiations were crucial
to maintaining French support for the war.
April 26, 1779 (Monday):
Debate continues on the recall of other American commissioners abroad,
particularly Arthur Lee, whose conduct had been controversial and had strained
relations with the French.
April 27, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress appropriates 2,000 guineas in specie (gold) for General Washington's
secret service operations, providing funds for intelligence and covert
activities.
April 30, 1779 (Friday):
Congress debates the recall of Arthur Lee, continuing its examination of the
conduct and effectiveness of its diplomatic corps.
May 1779
May 1, 1779 (Saturday):
Congress debates the recall of Arthur Lee, one of its commissioners in Europe,
who had become embroiled in disputes with fellow diplomats. The recall was
contentious due to divisions over Lee's conduct and effectiveness in
representing American interests abroad.
May 3, 1779 (Monday):
A motion to recall Arthur Lee is put to a vote, but the result is a tie,
leading to the motion's rejection. The split reflects the deep divisions within
Congress over foreign diplomacy and Lee's role in the American mission.
May 4, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress appoints a committee to meet with a delegation of Delaware Native
Americans. Relations with Native American nations were complex, as some tribes
sided with the British while others aligned with the Americans.
May 5, 1779 (Wednesday):
Congress resolves to emit an additional $10 million in Continental currency to
fund the war effort, despite growing concerns about inflation and the
depreciation of paper money.
May 6, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress observes a day of fasting and prayer, reflecting the spiritual
dimension that Congress often invoked to inspire perseverance during the war.
May 7, 1779 (Friday):
Congress denies a petition from Bermuda seeking an exemption from the American
embargo on provisions. Congress also orders Virginia and North Carolina to send
reinforcements to South Carolina, where British forces were making advances.
May 8, 1779 (Saturday):
Congress resumes debates over peace terms, particularly focusing on fishing
rights, which were a vital issue for the New England colonies. Fisheries were
seen as crucial to the post-war economy and national security.
May 10, 1779 (Monday):
Congress authorizes General Washington to coordinate combined Franco-American
military operations, underscoring the importance of cooperation with France
following the alliance.
May 11, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress appoints General Louis Duportail as commandant of the corps of
engineers. Duportail, a French military officer, had been instrumental in
fortifying American defenses.
May 12, 1779 (Wednesday):
Debates continue over peace terms, with fisheries remaining a focal point.
Congress aimed to secure access to critical fishing grounds as part of any
settlement with Great Britain.
May 13, 1779 (Thursday):
The debate on fisheries persists, as Congress sought to balance the needs of
New England with broader national interests in negotiations.
May 14, 1779 (Friday):
Meriwether Smith, a delegate from Virginia, charges Henry Laurens, the former
president of Congress, with injuring the honor of Congress through improper
actions. The dispute highlights internal divisions within Congress.
May 15, 1779 (Saturday):
Henry Laurens defends himself, denouncing Meriwether Smith’s accusations as an
attack on his honor and reputation, further intensifying the conflict within
Congress.
May 17, 1779 (Monday):
Congress directs its commissioners for Native American affairs in the northern
department to consult with General Washington on all treaty negotiations with
Native American tribes. Coordination with military leadership was essential for
securing frontier defenses.
May 18, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress authorizes an embargo exemption for Bermuda, reversing its earlier
decision, likely due to humanitarian concerns. The embargo had placed
significant strain on the island.
May 19, 1779 (Wednesday):
Congress increases the states' 1779 quotas by an additional $45 million,
attempting to raise more revenue for the war effort as the conflict dragged on.
May 20, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress receives a proposal from Virginia suggesting that the Articles of
Confederation be ratified without requiring unanimous consent from all states.
This proposal came amid frustrations with Maryland, which had delayed
ratification over territorial disputes.
May 21, 1779 (Friday):
Congress receives instructions from Maryland delegates concerning the Articles
of Confederation and considers Connecticut’s proposal to ratify the Articles
without Maryland's consent, reflecting the growing impatience with the ongoing
delay.
May 24, 1779 (Monday):
Congress debates the ongoing Deane-Lee controversy, involving charges of
misconduct between Silas Deane and Arthur Lee, two of the American
commissioners in Europe. Congress also authorizes retaliation for British
atrocities committed against French subjects in Virginia.
May 25-26, 1779 (Tuesday-Wednesday):
A congressional committee confers with a delegation of Delaware Native
Americans, continuing discussions aimed at securing alliances and peaceful
relations with Native tribes.
May 26, 1779 (Wednesday):
Congress allows Joseph Reed, president of Pennsylvania, to address Congress on
the worsening American fiscal crisis. The speech underscores the urgency of
meeting financial and manpower quotas. Congress also adopts an address to the
inhabitants of America, calling for sacrifices to support the war effort.
May 27, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress continues its debates over peace terms, again focusing on the
contentious issue of fisheries. The stakes remained high, particularly for the
New England colonies.
May 29, 1779 (Saturday):
Congress debates New York’s proposals for settling the Vermont issue, which
involved a dispute between New York and Vermont over the territory’s
independence and future status within the United States.
June 1779
June 1, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress resolves to send a committee to Vermont to investigate the situation
and work toward a resolution of the ongoing territorial dispute.
June 3, 1779 (Thursday):
Debates continue over peace terms, with fisheries again taking center stage.
Congress recognized the economic importance of these resources for post-war
recovery.
June 4, 1779 (Friday):
Congress resolves to emit an additional $10 million in Continental currency, as
the war effort continued to strain the nation's finances.
June 5, 1779 (Saturday):
Congress adopts a plan to fund the claims of Pierre Beaumarchais, a French
playwright and arms dealer who had provided critical supplies to the American
cause. His financial claims had been the subject of ongoing negotiations.
June 7, 1779 (Monday):
Congress adopts a vote of confidence in the quartermaster and commissary
generals, refusing to accept the resignation of Commissary Jeremiah Wadsworth.
The vote reflects Congress' desire to maintain stability in military logistics.
Congress also appoints a committee to consider the powers of foreign consuls in
America.
June 8, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress recalls Ralph Izard and William Lee, two American commissioners
abroad, reflecting dissatisfaction with their conduct and performance.
June 10, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress resumes debate on the recall of Arthur Lee, who was also under
scrutiny for his diplomatic efforts in Europe.
June 11, 1779 (Friday):
Congress resolves to borrow $20 million domestically at 6 percent interest,
attempting to fund the war through loans rather than further emissions of paper
currency, which were fueling inflation.
June 12, 1779 (Saturday):
Congress exonerates Dr. John Morgan, a former director of military hospitals,
who had been accused of mismanagement but was cleared after an inquiry.
June 14, 1779 (Monday):
Congress debates price regulation proposals, reflecting ongoing concerns about
rising inflation and the need to stabilize the economy.
June 15, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress directs General Washington to investigate charges against Dr. William
Shippen, Jr., the current director of military hospitals, amid allegations of
mismanagement. Congress also prepares a request for additional supplies from
the king of France.
June 16, 1779 (Wednesday):
Congress denounces the seizure of New York officials by inhabitants of the New
Hampshire Grants (Vermont), a further complication in the ongoing territorial
dispute.
June 17, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress debates peace terms, reaffirming provisions of the Franco-American
alliance that prohibited the negotiation of a separate peace with Britain.
June 19, 1779 (Saturday):
Debates continue over peace terms, with fisheries remaining a key issue.
June 21, 1779 (Monday):
Congress reverses a previous plan to enlist German deserters into the
Continental Army, reflecting concerns about discipline and loyalty. Congress
also debates financial reform proposals.
June 23, 1779 (Wednesday):
Financial reform continues to dominate debates, as Congress struggles to
address inflation, war financing, and the depreciation of currency.
June 24, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress resumes debates over peace terms, with fisheries once again being the
focal point of discussions.
June 25, 1779 (Friday):
Debates continue over financial reform as Congress seeks solutions to the
growing fiscal crisis that threatened to undermine the war effort.
June 28, 1779 (Monday):
Congress rejects a quartermaster's appeal for relief from state taxes,
maintaining the authority of the states over tax collection.
July 1779
July 1, 1779 (Thursday):
Debates over peace terms continue, with fisheries still at the center of
discussions. The fishing rights issue was seen as critical to the New England
economy.
July 2, 1779 (Friday):
Congress sets procedures for exchanging withdrawn emissions of Continental
currency, part of its broader efforts to stabilize the value of its paper
money.
July 6, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress approves the export of provisions for the French fleet stationed in
American waters. Franco-American cooperation was vital to the war effort, and
supplying the French forces was a priority.
July 7, 1779 (Wednesday):
Debates over financial reform continue, with Congress considering various
measures to combat inflation and stabilize the currency.
July 9, 1779 (Friday):
Congress orders an investigation into the purchasing practices of the
commissary and quartermaster departments amid concerns about corruption and
inefficiency in military supply chains.
July 12, 1779 (Monday):
Congress confers with French minister Gérard and receives a report from two
members of the committee sent to Vermont. The Vermont situation remained a
contentious issue.
July 13, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress receives a report from the other two members of the Vermont committee,
continuing discussions on how to resolve the dispute.
July 14, 1779 (Wednesday):
Congress debates the substance of its conference with the French minister,
focusing on Franco-American military coordination and diplomatic relations.
July 15, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress orders retaliation for British mistreatment of American naval
prisoners, particularly Captain Gustavus Conyngham, who had been captured and
harshly treated by the British.
July 16, 1779 (Friday):
Congress receives Arthur Lee’s response to charges made by Silas Deane, further
fueling the ongoing controversy between the two diplomats.
July 17, 1779 (Saturday):
Congress resolves to emit an additional $15 million in Continental currency to
meet the financial needs of the war. Congress also threatens retaliation
against Britain for its treatment of Captain Conyngham and debates peace terms,
again focusing on fishing rights.
July 19, 1779 (Monday):
Congress directs the Marine Committee to prepare a plan for retaliation
following recent British raids on Connecticut, where the British had inflicted
significant damage.
July 21, 1779 (Wednesday):
Congress recommends compensation for the owners of a Portuguese vessel that had
been illegally seized by an American privateer. The case was part of ongoing
diplomatic efforts to maintain good relations with neutral nations.
July 22, 1779 (Thursday):
Debates over peace terms, especially fishing rights, continue, as Congress
seeks to secure favorable terms in any eventual settlement with Great Britain.
July 23, 1779 (Friday):
Congress adopts a plan for the protection of Continental property within the
states, reflecting concerns about the security of military and civilian assets
during the war.
July 24, 1779 (Saturday):
Debates on peace terms, particularly fishing rights, continue as Congress
grapples with how to protect vital economic interests.
July 26, 1779 (Monday):
Congress commends the American forces for their victory in capturing the
British post at Stony Point, New York, a significant morale boost for the
Continental Army.
July 27, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress orders Virginia to send reinforcements to South Carolina, where
British forces continued to threaten American positions.
July 28, 1779 (Wednesday):
Debates on financial reform continue, with Congress seeking solutions to the
ongoing fiscal crisis that threatened to derail the war effort.
July 29, 1779 (Thursday):
Debates over peace terms, particularly fishing rights, persist as Congress
tries to secure a favorable settlement with Britain.
July 30, 1779 (Friday):
Congress adopts an ordinance for reorganizing the Treasury, aiming to improve
the management of the nation's finances and address the inflationary pressures
of war.
July 31, 1779 (Saturday):
Debates on peace terms continue, with fishing rights remaining a key issue in
Congress’s discussions.
August 1779
August 2, 1779 (Monday):
Congress exonerates Jean Holker, the French consul in Philadelphia, on charges
of profiteering. Congress also reaffirms its commitment to protecting French
consuls and officials, reflecting the importance of maintaining strong
Franco-American relations.
August 3, 1779 (Tuesday):
Debates over peace terms continue, with a focus on the French alliance and the
prohibition against negotiating a separate peace with Great Britain.
August 5, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress debates peace terms related to a potential Spanish subsidy, the status
of Florida, and navigation rights on the Mississippi River. These issues were
part of broader negotiations involving Spain, which was not yet a formal
belligerent in the war.
August 6, 1779 (Friday):
Congress authorizes the payment of Silas Deane’s expenses and releases him from
his obligation to remain in America. Deane, a former commissioner to France,
had been involved in a prolonged controversy with Arthur Lee and was anxious to
return to Europe.
August 7, 1779 (Saturday):
Congress continues to debate peace terms, particularly in relation to Spanish
interests in North America. Spain's involvement was critical to shaping the
post-war territorial settlement.
August 10, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress requests reinforcements from North Carolina to aid South Carolina,
where British forces were continuing their offensive operations.
August 13, 1779 (Friday):
Congress debates instructions for its minister plenipotentiary, who would be
tasked with negotiating peace terms with Great Britain. These discussions were
crucial as Congress sought to define its diplomatic strategy.
August 14, 1779 (Saturday):
Debates continue on the instructions for the minister plenipotentiary, focusing
on the key issues that would shape the peace negotiations, including
territorial boundaries, fishing rights, and the status of loyalists.
August 17, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress urges the states to provide half-pay for Continental officers, who had
long struggled with irregular pay and financial hardship, as part of efforts to
boost morale and retain experienced military leaders.
August 18, 1779 (Wednesday):
Congress augments the pay and allowances for Continental officers, recognizing
the need to support the officers who were leading the fight for independence.
August 21, 1779 (Saturday):
Congress requests that the states extend the embargo on provisions until
January 1, 1780, in order to maintain control over supplies and prevent goods
from reaching the British.
August 25, 1779 (Wednesday):
Congress urges the states to lift restrictions on interstate inland trade to
improve the flow of goods between the states and reduce internal trade
barriers.
August 26, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress appoints a committee to create a supreme court for admiralty appeals,
recognizing the need for a higher authority to handle complex legal disputes
over maritime captures and privateering.
August 28, 1779 (Saturday):
Debates over financial reform continue, with Congress seeking ways to stabilize
the economy and address the inflationary pressures that were undermining the
value of Continental currency.
August 31, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress receives a complaint from Henry Laurens, who accuses Secretary Charles
Thomson of disrespectful behavior. This personal dispute underscores the
tensions within Congress as members navigated the challenges of war and
diplomacy.
September 1779
September 1, 1779 (Wednesday):
Congress resolves that "on no account whatever" will it emit more
than $200 million in Continental currency. This decision is made to curb
inflation and the depreciation of paper money, which had become a growing
concern as the war continued.
September 3, 1779 (Friday):
Congress receives notice from French Minister Conrad Alexandre Gérard that he
will soon return to France. Gérard had been a key figure in maintaining the
Franco-American alliance during his tenure.
September 4, 1779 (Saturday):
Congress observes the death of William Henry Drayton, a South Carolinian
delegate and influential political figure. Drayton had played a significant
role in the revolutionary efforts in the southern colonies.
September 7, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress is notified of Spain's entry into the war against Britain, an
important development in the international support for the American cause.
Congress also adopts a farewell response to Minister Gérard, expressing
gratitude for his service.
September 9, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress adopts a letter of thanks to King Louis XVI of France for his
continued support of the American Revolution. On the same day, Congress debates
terms for a prospective alliance with Spain, seeking to formalize the newly
established cooperation.
September 10, 1779 (Friday):
Congress issues an urgent appeal to the states for clothing to supply the
Continental Army, which was suffering from shortages. The debate over relations
with Spain continues.
September 11, 1779 (Saturday):
Congress resumes its debate on relations with Spain, focusing on the terms of a
possible alliance and how to coordinate military efforts.
September 14, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress reads memorials from the Indiana and Vandalia land companies, both of
which were seeking Congressional recognition of their land claims in the
western territories. These land disputes would continue to be contentious.
September 16, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress debates various ways and means proposals to finance the war effort,
reflecting the ongoing financial crisis that was straining both Congress and
the states.
September 17, 1779 (Friday):
A farewell audience is held for French Minister Gérard as he prepares to depart
for France. Congress resolves to emit an additional $15 million in Continental
currency to fund the war effort and continues debating relations with Spain and
the ways and means proposals.
September 18, 1779 (Saturday):
Debates over relations with Spain persist, as Congress works to solidify
Spain’s commitment to the American cause while securing favorable terms for a
future alliance.
September 20, 1779 (Monday):
Congress orders military and naval reinforcements for the southern department,
where British forces were threatening American positions. The debate over
relations with Spain continues.
September 21, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress continues to debate the ways and means proposals for funding the war
and stabilizing the Continental economy.
September 22, 1779 (Wednesday):
Debates shift to claims made by New Hampshire Grants (modern-day Vermont)
regarding territorial disputes with New York and New Hampshire.
September 23, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress continues debating the New Hampshire Grants claims and resumes
discussions on relations with Spain, as it sought to clarify boundaries and
rights in any future treaties.
September 24, 1779 (Friday):
Congress requests authorization from Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and New York
to mediate the ongoing territorial claims involving the New Hampshire Grants.
Congress also commends American forces for their victory in the attack on the
British-held post at Paulus Hook, New Jersey. Relations with Spain remain a
topic of debate.
September 25, 1779 (Saturday):
Congress debates relations with Spain and the conduct of future peace
negotiations, focusing on Spain’s potential role as a mediator and ally in the
conflict.
September 26, 1779 (Sunday):
Congress nominates a minister plenipotentiary to negotiate treaties of peace
and alliance with Spain, formalizing efforts to secure Spanish support.
September 27, 1779 (Monday):
Congress elects John Jay as Minister to Spain and John Adams as the negotiator
for peace with Great Britain, reflecting Congress’s intention to engage
diplomatically on multiple fronts as the war continued.
 |
| President Samuel Huntington |
September 28, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress elects Samuel Huntington as President of Congress, succeeding John
Jay. Congress also adopts commissions and instructions for John Adams and John
Jay as they prepare to negotiate peace and alliances with Spain and Britain.
October 1779
October 1, 1779 (Friday):
Congress orders the preparation of a plan for reorganizing the conduct of naval
affairs, reflecting concerns about the management of the Continental Navy and
the need for more effective leadership.
October 2, 1779 (Saturday):
Congress requests claimants in Vermont to authorize Congress to settle the
ongoing territorial dispute. The Vermont issue had become increasingly
contentious as the region sought recognition as a separate state.
October 4, 1779 (Monday):
Congress adopts instructions for John Jay, the newly appointed Minister to
Spain, as he prepares to negotiate an alliance and support for the American
cause.
October 6, 1779 (Wednesday):
Congress admonishes General Benedict Arnold for his treatment of Pennsylvania
officials. Arnold’s conduct while serving as the military commander of
Philadelphia had raised concerns, marking the beginning of his fall from grace.
October 7, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress calculates and apportions the fiscal quotas for 1780, determining how
much each state should contribute to the war effort.
October 9, 1779 (Saturday):
Congress adopts a circular letter to the states urging them to meet their
fiscal quotas, as the war effort continued to place enormous financial demands
on Congress.
October 13, 1779 (Wednesday):
Congress authorizes Arthur Lee, the controversial American commissioner in
Europe, to return to America. Lee had been involved in numerous diplomatic
disputes during his time abroad.
October 14, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress commends General John Sullivan for his leadership in the expedition
against Native American tribes allied with the British. Congress also resolves
to emit an additional $5 million and sets a national day of thanksgiving.
October 15, 1779 (Friday):
Congress adopts further instructions for John Jay and resolves to seek a loan
in Holland, recognizing the need to secure foreign funds to support the war
effort.
October 20, 1779 (Wednesday):
Congress adopts the national day of thanksgiving proclamation, calling on
Americans to give thanks for their victories and perseverance during the war.
October 21, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress appoints Henry Laurens, a former president of Congress, to negotiate a
Dutch loan, recognizing Laurens’ diplomatic experience and the importance of
securing financial support from European powers.
October 22, 1779 (Friday):
Congress rejects an appeal for Continental intervention against state taxation
of Continental quartermasters, affirming the autonomy of the states in taxation
matters.
October 26, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress adopts instructions for the negotiation of a Dutch loan and a treaty
of amity and commerce, continuing efforts to expand diplomatic and financial
ties with European powers.
October 28, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress creates a Board of Admiralty, ending the management of naval affairs
by a congressional committee. The new board was designed to provide more
efficient oversight of the Continental Navy.
October 30, 1779 (Saturday):
Congress urges Virginia to reconsider its decision to open a land office for
the sale of unappropriated lands. The sale of western lands was a contentious
issue, particularly in the context of territorial disputes and the need to
settle land claims.
November 1779
November 1, 1779 (Monday):
Congress appoints Henry Laurens to negotiate a treaty of amity and commerce
with the Dutch Republic, part of the ongoing effort to secure foreign alliances
and financial support.
November 2-3, 1779 (Tuesday-Wednesday):
Congress adjourns due to the expiration of President Samuel Huntington’s
credentials as a Connecticut delegate, a procedural issue that temporarily
halted congressional business.
November 5, 1779 (Friday):
Congress is notified of the British evacuation of Rhode Island, a major victory
for American forces. Congress also appoints a committee to plan an executive
board to supervise Continental officials, aiming to improve the administration
of the war effort.
November 8, 1779 (Monday):
Congress requests the correspondence files of former presidents of Congress,
likely to ensure continuity and institutional memory in decision-making.
November 9, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress elects new Treasury officers as part of its ongoing efforts to improve
the management of war finances.
November 10, 1779 (Wednesday):
Congress orders the deployment of three frigates to South Carolina, where
British forces continued their push into the southern colonies.
November 11, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress orders reinforcements for the southern department and observes the
funeral of Joseph Hewes, a North Carolina delegate and signer of the
Declaration of Independence.
November 13, 1779 (Saturday):
Congress rejects the resignation of General John Sullivan, who had led the
successful campaign against British-aligned Native American tribes. Congress
also approves the parole of British Generals William Phillips and Baron
Riedesel, captured as part of the Saratoga Convention Army.
November 16, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress undertakes the care of Spanish prisoners held in New York, reflecting
Spain’s new alliance with the American cause. Congress also rejects an appeal
from Massachusetts to retain Continental taxes to offset the costs of the
failed Penobscot expedition.
November 17, 1779 (Wednesday):
Congress holds an audience with the newly arrived French minister, the
Chevalier de La Luzerne, who had replaced Gérard. Congress also resolves to
emit an additional $10 million in Continental currency.
November 18, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress gives General Washington the authority to coordinate operations with
French armed forces, cementing the Franco-American military alliance.
November 19, 1779 (Friday):
Congress recommends that the states adopt price regulations to combat inflation
and stabilize the wartime economy.
November 23, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress resolves to draw bills of exchange worth £100,000 sterling on John Jay
and Henry Laurens, providing them with funds for their diplomatic missions in
Europe.
November 25, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress adopts new regulations for clothing the Continental Army, addressing
ongoing shortages. Congress also discharges the committee responsible for
superintending the commissary and quartermaster departments, signaling a shift
in administrative oversight.
November 26, 1779 (Friday):
Congress appoints Admiralty commissioners to oversee naval operations, further
centralizing the management of naval affairs.
November 29, 1779 (Monday):
Congress commemorates the death of General Casimir Pulaski, a Polish nobleman
who had died of wounds sustained at the Battle of Savannah. Congress also
resolves to emit an additional $10 million in Continental currency and accepts
the resignation of Commissary General Jeremiah Wadsworth.
November 30, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress appoints a committee to confer with General Washington at his
headquarters, reflecting ongoing coordination between the military and
political leadership. Congress also accepts the resignation of General John
Sullivan.
December 1779
December 2, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress receives notification of Spain’s formal declaration of war against
Britain, a significant development in the international dimensions of the
American Revolution. Congress also appoints Ephraim Blaine as the new
commissary general of purchases.
December 3, 1779 (Friday):
Congress resolves to move its sessions from Philadelphia at the end of April
1780, reflecting concerns over the city’s vulnerability to British attack.
December 6, 1779 (Monday):
Congress orders reinforcements to bolster the armed forces in the southern
department, where British forces were making significant gains.
December 9, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress observes the national day of thanksgiving, a tradition that had been
proclaimed earlier in the fall to recognize the perseverance of the American
people and military.
December 15, 1779 (Wednesday):
Congress recommends that the states extend the provisions embargo until April
1780, seeking to maintain control over resources critical to the war effort.
December 16, 1779 (Thursday):
Congress authorizes General Benjamin Lincoln, commander of the southern
department, to coordinate operations with Spanish officers stationed at Havana,
Cuba. This decision reflects the growing importance of Spanish support in the
southern theater of the war.
December 20-24, 1779 (Monday-Friday):
Congress debates a proposal to borrow $20 million abroad, part of the ongoing
effort to secure foreign loans to finance the war. The financial crisis
continued to dominate discussions as Congress struggled to fund the Continental
Army.
December 24, 1779 (Friday):
Congress authorizes the use of depositions from witnesses at courts-martial in
non-capital cases, streamlining the judicial process in military courts.
December 27, 1779 (Monday):
Congress recommends a moratorium on granting lands in the region of the
Pennsylvania-Virginia boundary dispute, hoping to prevent further conflicts
over land claims. Congress also orders the Post Office to institute
twice-weekly deliveries, replacing the previous weekly service.
December 28, 1779 (Tuesday):
Congress authorizes Continental reimbursement for militia expenses incurred
during the defense of Connecticut against British invasions.
December 31, 1779 (Friday):
Congress endorses a Board of War plan to employ greater secrecy to reduce
procurement expenses, reflecting concerns about waste, fraud, and the efficient
management of wartime logistics.
Journals of the Continental Congress - United States of America - 1780
January 1780
January 3, 1780 (Monday):
Congress postpones a decision on selecting a new site for its sessions. The
vulnerability of Philadelphia to British attack had prompted discussions about
relocating Congress to a more secure location.
January 4-8, 1780:
Congress debates a plan for creating a Court of Appeals, aimed at handling
admiralty cases and other legal matters that had arisen during the war. This
new court would provide a mechanism for settling disputes related to maritime
captures and trade.
January 8, 1780 (Saturday):
Congress reorganizes Georgia’s Continental regiments, which had been weakened
by the British occupation of Savannah. This reorganization was part of broader
efforts to reinforce the southern department.
January 10, 1780 (Monday):
Congress dismisses General Charles Lee, the second-ranking officer in the
Continental Army, following a series of controversies, including his conduct at
the Battle of Monmouth. Congress also debates plans to reduce the size of the
army in order to curtail expenses, as the war’s financial strain was becoming
increasingly severe.
January 12, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress sends an emergency appeal to the states for provisions to supply the
Continental Army, which was suffering from severe shortages. Congress also
abolishes the mustermaster’s department, a cost-cutting measure as part of
efforts to streamline military administration.
January 13, 1780 (Thursday):
New regulations for prisoner exchanges are adopted by Congress, formalizing the
process of negotiating the exchange of prisoners of war with the British.
January 14, 1780 (Friday):
Congress recommends that the states guarantee the privileges and immunities of
French citizens living in the United States, as recognized in the
Franco-American Treaty of Amity and Commerce. This was part of ongoing efforts
to strengthen ties with France.
January 15, 1780 (Saturday):
Congress officially creates a Court of Appeals in admiralty cases, providing a
legal mechanism for resolving disputes over maritime captures, trade, and
related matters.
January 17, 1780 (Monday):
Congress endorses the export of grain to French forces, facilitating
cooperation with French military and naval operations. This decision was made
at the request of the French agent of marine, who was responsible for
provisioning French forces stationed in America.
January 18, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress resolves to print its journals monthly but ends the practice of
printing the yeas and nays from its votes, likely to reduce costs and maintain
some level of discretion in decision-making.
January 20, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress orders an investigation into the expenses of the staff departments and
abolishes the barrackmaster’s department, part of an ongoing effort to reduce
military expenditures.
January 22, 1780 (Saturday):
Congress elects judges to serve on the newly created Court of Appeals, ensuring
the court could begin functioning to handle disputes.
January 24, 1780 (Monday):
New measures for recruiting Continental troops are adopted, as the army
continued to struggle with recruitment and retention issues.
January 25, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress halts the pay of inactive naval officers, another cost-cutting measure
aimed at reducing unnecessary expenditures.
January 26, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress appoints a committee to confer with the French minister, Chevalier de
La Luzerne, on joint Franco-American military operations, reflecting the
importance of coordination with French forces.
January 27, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress authorizes inflation adjustments for the salaries of Continental
officials, responding to the widespread depreciation of Continental currency
and the rising cost of living.
January 31, 1780 (Monday):
Congress pledges to wage a vigorous campaign in conjunction with French forces
during 1780, committing to a strategy of intensified military action to bring
the war to a favorable conclusion.
February 1780
February 4-5, 1780:
Congress debates Continental Army quotas for 1780, discussing how many troops
each state should provide to ensure the army was adequately manned for the
coming campaigns.
February 9, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress sets state quotas and adopts recruitment measures to raise an army of
35,000 men by April 1, 1780. This ambitious goal was part of a broader effort
to rebuild the Continental Army after years of attrition.
February 11, 1780 (Friday):
Congress affirms its commitment to the reconquest of Georgia, which had fallen
under British control. The southern theater of the war was becoming
increasingly critical to American strategy.
February 12, 1780 (Saturday):
Congress confirms the court-martial sentence of General Benedict Arnold. Arnold
had been accused of misconduct during his time as the military governor of
Philadelphia, though this decision preceded his eventual treason later in the
year.
February 16-24, 1780:
Congress debates various proposals for a system of in-kind requisitions from
the states. This would allow states to contribute supplies and resources, such
as food and clothing, instead of money, which had become scarce due to
inflation and economic instability.
February 22, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress debates an issue of congressional privilege arising from a complaint
made by delegate Elbridge Gerry. The nature of the complaint is not specified
but likely involved a dispute over parliamentary procedures or personal
conduct.
February 25, 1780 (Friday):
Congress adopts a system of in-kind requisitions from the states, formalizing
the process by which states could supply the army with goods rather than paper
money.
February 28, 1780 (Monday):
Congress once again postpones a decision on selecting a new site for its
sessions, reflecting continued uncertainty about where Congress could safely
convene.
March 1780
March 2, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress postpones debate on the Vermont controversy, a long-standing
territorial dispute involving claims by New York, New Hampshire, and the
self-declared Republic of Vermont.
March 3, 1780 (Friday):
Congress sets a "day of fasting, humiliation, and prayer," a
tradition observed throughout the war to invoke divine favor and inspire
perseverance among the American people.
March 4, 1780 (Saturday):
Congress commends John Paul Jones and the crew of the Bonhomme Richard
for their famous victory over the British warship Serapis in September
1779, recognizing their bravery and contributions to the war effort.
March 8, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress orders reinforcements for the southern department, where British
forces were threatening American control of the region, particularly in South
Carolina and Georgia.
March 13-18, 1780:
Congress engages in a series of debates over fiscal reform, discussing measures
to address the rampant inflation and depreciation of Continental currency.
March 18, 1780 (Saturday):
In a significant move, Congress repudiates the Continental dollar and adopts
measures to redeem bills in circulation at the ratio of 40 to 1. This was an
attempt to restore confidence in the currency and control inflation.
March 20, 1780 (Monday):
Congress recommends that states revise their legal tender laws, aligning them
with the newly adopted measures to stabilize the value of paper money.
March 21, 1780 (Tuesday):
Debate on the Vermont controversy is again postponed, as the territorial
dispute remained unresolved.
March 24, 1780 (Friday):
Congress observes Good Friday, a day of Christian reflection and observance.
March 26, 1780 (Sunday):
Congress observes the funeral of James Forbes, a delegate from Maryland who had
recently passed away.
March 27, 1780 (Monday):
Congress rejects proposals for a new site for its sessions, once again
deferring the decision. Congress also receives a plan for reorganizing the
quartermaster department, which was responsible for supplying the army.
March 29-31, 1780:
Congress debates proposals for adjusting Continental loan office certificates
to account for inflation, as the depreciation of paper currency had drastically
reduced the value of these certificates.
April 1780
April 1, 1780 (Saturday):
Congress resumes debates on the plan for reorganizing the quartermaster
department, reflecting ongoing concerns about the efficiency of the military
supply chain.
April 3, 1780 (Monday):
Congress rejects a motion to hear Elbridge Gerry’s appeal, likely related to
his earlier complaint of congressional privilege.
April 4, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress authorizes the defense of the New York frontier at Continental
expense, responding to the threat of British raids and Native American attacks.
April 6, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress resolves to send a committee to confer with General Washington at his
headquarters, underscoring the importance of close coordination between the
political and military leadership.
April 8, 1780 (Saturday):
Congress authorizes partial reimbursement to Massachusetts for expenses related
to the failed Penobscot expedition, a disastrous military campaign in 1779.
April 10, 1780 (Monday):
Congress authorizes depreciation allowances for Continental troops, recognizing
the financial hardships caused by inflation and seeking to compensate soldiers
more fairly.
April 12, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress adopts instructions for the Committee at Headquarters, which was
responsible for coordinating with General Washington on military strategy.
April 13, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress formally appoints the members of the Committee at Headquarters.
April 15, 1780 (Saturday):
Congress appoints Joseph Ward as commissary general of prisoners, a key
position responsible for managing prisoner exchanges and the treatment of
captured soldiers.
April 17, 1780 (Monday):
Congress rejects a proposal to appoint a “resident” at the Court of Versailles,
France. This suggests that Congress did not see the need for a permanent
diplomatic representative in France beyond the existing commissioners.
April 18, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress authorizes depreciation allowances for holders of Continental loan
office certificates and commissions for Delaware Indians, reflecting ongoing
efforts to stabilize the currency and maintain alliances with Native American
tribes.
April 20, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress resolves to draw bills of exchange on John Jay, who was serving as
Minister to Spain, to finance diplomatic efforts and secure loans.
April 21, 1780 (Friday):
Measures for the relief of prisoners of war are adopted by Congress, ensuring
that captured soldiers were provided for while in captivity.
April 24, 1780 (Monday):
Congress adopts an appeal to the states to meet their fiscal quotas, urging
them to provide the necessary funds and supplies for the war effort.
April 28, 1780 (Friday):
Cyrus Griffin is appointed to the Court of Appeals, and William Denning is
appointed to the Board of Treasury, filling important administrative roles in
Congress.
May 1780
May 2, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress revises commissions, bonds, and instructions for privateers, seeking
to regulate the growing number of private ships authorized to attack British
vessels.
May 5, 1780 (Friday):
Postal rates are doubled by Congress to help raise revenue, as the cost of
maintaining postal services had increased due to inflation.
May 10, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress adopts regulations for replacing destroyed loan office certificates,
ensuring that holders of these certificates could still redeem them for value
despite losses.
May 15, 1780 (Monday):
Three delegates from Georgia attend Congress, representing the state for the
first time in over a year after Georgia had been under British occupation.
May 17, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress considers the report from the Committee at Headquarters, which was
presented by delegate John Mathews, detailing the military situation and
coordination with General Washington.
May 18-20, 1780:
Congress debates a memorial from French Minister Chevalier de La Luzerne on
Franco-American cooperation, reflecting the importance of maintaining and
expanding military coordination with French forces.
May 19, 1780 (Friday):
Congress urges the states to remit quota payments immediately, emphasizing the
urgent need for funds to sustain the war effort.
May 20, 1780 (Saturday):
Congress issues another urgent call for the states to meet their troop quotas,
highlighting the shortages in manpower faced by the Continental Army.
May 22, 1780 (Monday):
Congress urges Delaware to extend its embargo on provisions indefinitely to
prevent goods from falling into British hands.
May 23, 1780 (Tuesday):
The Vermont controversy is debated again in Congress, but no final resolution
is reached.
May 26, 1780 (Friday):
Congress requests that the states accept Continental certificates in payment of
taxes, an attempt to stabilize the currency and ensure its use within the
states.
May 29, 1780 (Monday):
Debates over the Vermont controversy continue as Congress grapples with the
disputed territorial claims.
May 30, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress rescinds an instruction from the Committee at Headquarters regarding
the propriety of reducing the Continental Army, reflecting the need to maintain
troop strength despite financial challenges.
June 1780
June 1, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress adopts measures for the defense of the New York and New Hampshire
frontiers, where British forces and Native American allies posed a significant
threat.
June 2, 1780 (Friday):
Congress censures Vermont settlers and pledges to make a final determination on
the Vermont controversy once nine “disinterested” states are represented in
Congress, delaying a final resolution.
June 5, 1780 (Monday):
Congress adopts plans for cooperating with the anticipated arrival of
additional French forces, reflecting the growing importance of the
Franco-American military alliance.
June 6, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress orders arms and supplies for the defense of the southern department,
where British forces were conducting a major offensive.
June 9, 1780 (Friday):
The Vermont inquiry is postponed until September 12, further delaying a
resolution of the territorial dispute.
June 12, 1780 (Monday):
Congress orders restrictions on the issuance of Continental rations to conserve
supplies and creates two extra chambers of accounts to facilitate the
settlement of staff department accounts.
June 13, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress appoints General Horatio Gates to command the southern department,
replacing General Benjamin Lincoln, whose forces had been defeated at the Siege
of Charleston.
June 14, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress adopts measures for the defense of the southern department, as the
British continued their offensive in the region.
June 15, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress issues a circular letter to the states reinforcing the appeals of the
Committee at Headquarters for funds and troops, urging immediate action to meet
the war’s demands.
June 19, 1780 (Monday):
Congress adopts measures to prevent and punish counterfeiting, which had become
a major problem undermining the value of Continental currency.
June 20, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress empowers John Adams, serving as a diplomat in Europe, to seek a loan
from the Dutch Republic to finance the war effort.
June 21, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress reaffirms its commitment to Franco-American military cooperation and
appoints an agent to transact U.S. affairs in Portugal, reflecting an effort to
expand diplomatic and commercial relations.
June 22, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress endorses a plan to establish a private bank for provisioning and
supplying the Continental Army, recognizing the need for more reliable
financial support for the military.
June 23, 1780 (Friday):
Congress orders an inquiry into the fall of Charleston, South Carolina, which
had been captured by British forces in May, and reaffirms support for the
defense of Georgia and South Carolina.
June 28, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress adopts a plan for paying depreciation allowances to holders of
Continental loan office certificates, recognizing the need to compensate those
whose investments had been eroded by inflation.
July 1780
July 3, 1780 (Monday):
Congress orders the Admiralty Board to implement an intelligence gathering
plan, reflecting the importance of naval intelligence in the ongoing conflict
with Britain, particularly in protecting American and French forces.
July 5-6, 1780:
Congress debates a plan to reform the quartermaster department, focusing on
making the department more efficient in supplying the Continental Army with the
resources needed for the war.
July 7, 1780 (Friday):
Congress endorses French Minister Chevalier de La Luzerne’s request to allow
the shipment of provisions to Spanish forces stationed in the West Indies. This
marks the strengthening of Franco-Spanish cooperation in the war against
Britain.
July 11, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress orders the publication of its May 1778 resolution requesting the
revocation of Articles 11 and 12 of the Franco-American Treaty of Commerce.
These articles had been a source of contention between the two allies due to
their potential impact on future trade relations.
July 13, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress orders General Washington to seek the exchange of General du Portail,
the chief of engineers, who had been captured by the British. Du Portail’s
expertise was critical for the fortification and defense of American positions.
July 15, 1780 (Saturday):
Congress reorganizes the quartermaster department, formally keeping Nathanael
Greene in his role as quartermaster general, a position that was vital to
maintaining army logistics.
July 17, 1780 (Monday):
Congress receives news of the arrival of the French fleet at Rhode Island under
Admiral Ternay. This fleet, accompanied by troops under General Rochambeau, was
a major boost to the American war effort.
July 19, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress opens debate on the court-martial of Dr. William Shippen, Jr., the
director general of hospitals, who had been accused of corruption and
mismanagement within the military medical department.
July 20, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress suspends Deputy Quartermaster Henry Hollingsworth from his duties,
likely due to charges of mismanagement in the supply chain, as the Continental
Army continued to suffer from logistical challenges.
July 25, 1780 (Tuesday):
Charles Pettit is appointed assistant quartermaster general, reflecting
Congress’s ongoing efforts to reform and strengthen the logistics of the
Continental Army.
July 26, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress orders the deployment of Continental frigates to cooperate with the
French fleet, recognizing the need for joint naval operations. Congress also
orders reforms in the department of military stores to improve the efficiency
of supplying the army with arms and ammunition.
July 27, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress transfers responsibility for issuing privateer commissions and bonds
to the office of the secretary of Congress. This centralization was likely
intended to streamline the process and reduce fraud or abuse.
August 1780
August 2, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress lifts restrictions on General Washington’s operational authority,
giving him greater flexibility to manage the war effort. It also reprimands the
Committee at Headquarters for its failure to adequately support the army’s
needs.
August 3-4, 1780:
Congress debates Quartermaster Nathanael Greene’s request to resign, reflecting
his frustration with the logistical challenges he faced. His resignation
request is ultimately rejected.
August 5, 1780 (Saturday):
Congress appoints Timothy Pickering as the new quartermaster general, replacing
Greene. Congress also orders Washington to confer with French officers to plan
joint operations to expel the British from Georgia and South Carolina.
August 7, 1780 (Monday):
Congress instructs Washington on how to handle prisoner-of-war exchanges and
reinforces his orders to bolster the southern department, where the British
were gaining ground.
August 9, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress authorizes drawing bills of exchange on Benjamin Franklin, the U.S.
ambassador to France, to secure additional financial relief for the southern
department, which was in dire need of resources.
August 11, 1780 (Friday):
Congress dismisses the Committee at Headquarters, likely due to its failure to
effectively manage the army’s affairs, especially in terms of supplies and
communication.
August 12, 1780 (Saturday):
Congress reforms the department of military stores and responds to grievances
raised by general officers regarding their treatment and conditions.
August 17, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress commends General Rochambeau and the French forces for their conduct
since arriving in America, recognizing the importance of the French alliance.
August 18, 1780 (Friday):
Congress confirms the court-martial acquittal of Dr. William Shippen, Jr., who
had faced accusations of corruption in his management of the military hospital
department.
August 22, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress orders the punishment of abuses within the staff departments,
reflecting the ongoing issues of corruption and inefficiency in military
administration.
August 23, 1780 (Wednesday):
New regulations are adopted for the issuance of certificates within the
commissary and quartermaster departments, aiming to address problems of
accountability and transparency. Congress also authorizes additional bills of
exchange to be drawn on Franklin in France.
August 24-25, 1780:
Congress extends additional benefits to general officers in recognition of
their service and to address grievances related to pay and conditions.
August 26, 1780 (Saturday):
Congress urges the states to implement its March 18 resolves for exchanging
Continental currency, as inflation continued to plague the war economy.
August 29, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress appoints a committee to plan a "new arrangement of the civil
executive departments," part of an effort to streamline the functioning of
the government and improve oversight.
August 31, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress receives news of General Horatio Gates' defeat at the Battle of
Camden, a major setback in the southern campaign, and begins preparing a
response to the crisis.
September 1780
September 1, 1780 (Friday):
Congress receives an informal invitation to trade with Morocco, signaling the
first diplomatic overtures between the United States and the North African
kingdom.
September 5, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress authorizes the issuance of loan office certificates amounting to $1
million in specie value, with 6 percent interest, in an effort to raise
additional funds for the war effort.
September 6, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress urges the states to cede their western land claims to the federal
government and presses Maryland to ratify the Articles of Confederation, which
was still pending Maryland's approval.
September 8, 1780 (Friday):
Congress orders reinforcements for the southern military department, which was
in disarray following the defeat at Camden.
September 13, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress sets a new salary schedule for the Continental establishment,
addressing ongoing concerns about compensation and the depreciation of
Continental currency.
September 14, 1780 (Thursday):
The Vermont dispute is reopened for debate, as the conflict over Vermont’s
territorial claims continued to divide the states.
September 15, 1780 (Friday):
Abraham Skinner is appointed commissary general of prisoners, and Congress
adopts a plan to ensure a stable meat supply for the Continental Army,
addressing concerns over food shortages.
September 19, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress convenes an evening session to continue the debate on the Vermont
dispute, indicating the contentiousness and importance of the issue.
September 21, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress authorizes the enlistment of troops for one-year terms, as it
struggled to fill the army’s ranks with soldiers enlisted for the duration of
the war.
September 22, 1780 (Friday):
Congress authorizes drawing additional bills of exchange on Franklin in France,
continuing efforts to finance the war through foreign loans.
September 25, 1780 (Monday):
Congress adopts a new plan for the inspecting department, consolidating
mustering functions under the inspector general, in an effort to improve the
efficiency of troop inspections and records.
September 26, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress resolves to instruct commanders of ships to observe principles
conforming to the Russian declaration on neutral rights, reflecting the
importance of international law in maritime warfare.
September 27, 1780 (Wednesday):
The debate over the Vermont dispute is postponed again as no resolution could
be reached.
September 28, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress resolves to limit presidential terms to one year, likely to ensure
more frequent turnover in leadership and prevent the consolidation of power.
September 30, 1780 (Saturday):
Congress receives word of General Benedict Arnold’s treason, a shocking
revelation that would have a significant impact on morale and trust within the
Continental Army. Congress also adopts a new plan for the medical department to
improve the care and treatment of soldiers.
October 1780
October 2, 1780 (Monday):
Congress authorizes the drawing of additional bills of exchange on Franklin and
John Jay, who were both securing loans in Europe for the war effort.
October 3, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress adopts a new establishment for the Continental Army, restructuring its
organization to improve efficiency and effectiveness in the field.
October 4, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress adopts instructions for John Jay regarding the navigation of the
Mississippi River and the southwestern boundaries of the United States, which
were critical issues in future peace negotiations.
October 6, 1780 (Friday):
Congress elects officers for the hospital department, continuing its efforts to
reform the military medical system.
October 10, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress adopts a Virginia proposal to reimburse the state for expenses related
to the cession of its western lands. It also requires that the ceded lands be
used "for the common benefit of the United States."
October 13, 1780 (Friday):
Congress appoints Daniel Morgan as brigadier general, recognizing his
leadership and contributions to the war effort. It also creates a third chamber
of accounts to expedite the settlement of financial claims.
October 14, 1780 (Saturday):
Congress votes to memorialize Baron de Kalb, a major general who had been
killed in the Battle of Camden. Congress also commends various officers and
troops for their bravery in the battle.
October 16, 1780 (Monday):
Congress receives the proceedings of the Hartford Convention, a meeting of New
England states to discuss mutual defense and coordination.
October 17, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress adopts a letter of instruction for John Jay, who was negotiating with
Spain over the southwestern boundaries and the navigation of the Mississippi
River.
October 18, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress instructs John Adams on peace negotiations and sets a day of prayer
and thanksgiving, continuing the tradition of seeking divine guidance in times
of crisis.
October 21, 1780 (Saturday):
Congress endorses a proposal to receive a delegation from the Cherokee Nation,
recognizing the importance of maintaining alliances with Native American
tribes. It also revises the Continental Army establishment.
October 23, 1780 (Monday):
Congress receives a report on the American victory at the Battle of King’s
Mountain, a major turning point in the southern campaign.
October 24, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress sends an urgent appeal to the states, highlighting the severe distress
faced by the Continental Army, which was suffering from a lack of provisions,
clothing, and pay.
October 25-31, 1780:
Congress engages in intense debates over proposals for ways and means to
finance the war, as inflation and currency depreciation continued to cripple
the economy.
October 30, 1780 (Monday):
Congress confirms Nathanael Greene’s appointment as commander of the southern
department, replacing General Gates after his defeat at Camden.
October 31, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress orders the deployment of cavalry reinforcements to the southern
department to bolster the forces under General Greene.
November 1780
November 1, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress authorizes the drawing of additional bills of exchange on Franklin to
raise more funds for the war effort.
November 3, 1780 (Friday):
Congress rewards the captors of Major John André, the British officer who had
assisted Benedict Arnold in his treasonous plot. André’s capture had helped
foil Arnold’s plans.
November 4, 1780 (Saturday):
Congress apportions a $6 million specie tax, to be collected chiefly in kind,
as part of its efforts to fund the war. William Palfrey is appointed consul to
France.
November 7, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress authorizes an exchange of prisoners of war, a critical issue as both
sides held significant numbers of captured soldiers.
November 9, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress adopts a letter appealing to the states to respond to the present
emergency, seeking immediate support in the form of funds, troops, and
supplies.
November 10, 1780 (Friday):
Congress adopts measures to curtail enemy fraudulent use of American privateer
commissions and directs steps to reduce forage expenses, reflecting ongoing
issues of supply management.
November 13, 1780 (Monday):
Congress commends the troops who had engaged in the victory at King’s Mountain,
recognizing the significance of the battle for the southern campaign.
November 14, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress authorizes capital punishment for individuals convicted of supplying
the enemy with provisions or military stores, reflecting the seriousness of
such offenses during wartime.
November 16, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress receives a report from the Committee at Headquarters and holds
discussions with Pennsylvania officials on maintaining the provisions embargo.
November 17, 1780 (Friday):
Congress resolves to appeal to France for 25 million livres in aid, recognizing
the continued need for French financial support.
November 22, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress adopts an appeal to the king of France for additional aid and appoints
William Geddes as paymaster general.
November 23, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress rescinds its election of William Geddes as paymaster general,
reflecting dissatisfaction or new developments in the appointment process.
November 24, 1780 (Friday):
Congress receives a report on a treasury inquiry, likely related to the
management of finances and the ongoing fiscal challenges.
November 27, 1780 (Monday):
Congress adopts measures for outfitting Continental ships and issues additional
instructions to privateers, aiming to bolster naval operations.
November 28, 1780 (Tuesday):
Congress extends half-pay provisions to general officers and instructs Franklin
on procuring additional aid from France and cultivating trade relations with
Morocco.
November 30, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress adopts revised regulations for the commissary department, reflecting
ongoing efforts to improve the efficiency and accountability of military supply
chains.
December 1780
December 1, 1780 (Friday):
Congress adopts a statement endorsing Arthur Lee’s conduct abroad, reaffirming
its support for the diplomat amid ongoing controversies over his role.
December 4, 1780 (Monday):
Congress prohibits unauthorized military purchases and appoints Simeon De Witt
as Geographer to the Continental Army, a key role in mapping and planning
military operations.
December 6, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress commends Benjamin Tallmadge and his troops for a successful raid on
Long Island, highlighting the importance of guerrilla-style raids against
British positions.
December 7, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress observes a national day of prayer and thanksgiving, continuing the
tradition of seeking divine support for the American cause.
December 9, 1780 (Saturday):
Congress adopts instructions for William Palfrey, consul to France, reflecting
the ongoing importance of diplomatic relations with America’s European allies.
December 11, 1780 (Monday):
John Laurens is appointed as "envoy extraordinary" to France, tasked
with securing additional aid and support for the war effort.
December 15, 1780 (Friday):
Congress resolves to appoint a minister to Russia, signaling an interest in
expanding diplomatic relations with other European powers.
December 19, 1780 (Tuesday):
Francis Dana is appointed as Minister to Russia, marking a significant step in
the formalization of diplomatic ties between the two nations.
December 21, 1780 (Thursday):
Congress debates the impact of John Laurens’ appointment on Benjamin Franklin’s
mission in France, considering the potential for overlapping responsibilities.
December 22, 1780 (Friday):
Congress appeals to the states to fulfill their Continental troop quotas,
emphasizing the urgent need for reinforcements as the war continued into its
sixth year.
December 23, 1780 (Saturday):
Congress adopts formal instructions for John Laurens in his special envoy
mission to France, outlining his responsibilities and goals.
December 27, 1780 (Wednesday):
Congress instructs Benjamin Franklin on the details of John Laurens’ mission to
France, ensuring coordination between the two diplomats.
December 29, 1780 (Friday):
John Adams is commissioned to negotiate a treaty of amity and commerce with the
United Provinces (the Dutch Republic), marking an important step in securing
new trade relations and financial support.
Journals of the Continental Congress –
United States of America - 1781
January 1781
January 3, 1781 (Wednesday):
Congress appoints a committee to confer with Pennsylvania officials regarding
the mutiny of the Pennsylvania Line, a significant crisis in which Continental
soldiers stationed in Pennsylvania mutinied over pay and poor conditions. The
committee is tasked with addressing the soldiers' grievances while maintaining
order.
January 5, 1781 (Friday):
The committee on the Pennsylvania Line mutiny is empowered to "take such
measures as may appear necessary to quiet the disturbances." This move
reflects the urgency of the situation, as the mutiny had the potential to
destabilize military morale. On the same day, Congress issues a threat of
retaliation against the British for their mistreatment of American prisoners of
war.
January 6, 1781 (Saturday):
Congress revives a committee to focus on the reorganization of the executive
departments. This indicates a push to streamline and improve the management of
key governmental functions, especially as the war dragged on and the need for
more efficient administration became apparent.
January 8, 1781 (Monday):
Congress endorses a proposal to receive a delegation from the Delaware Native
American tribe, underscoring the importance of maintaining good relations with
Native American allies during the war.
January 9, 1781 (Tuesday):
Congress recommends the prosecution of former Clothier General James Mease for
"a high abuse of office," likely connected to corruption or
mismanagement in the distribution of military supplies.
January 10, 1781 (Wednesday):
Congress authorizes the establishment of a permanent office for the Department
of Foreign Affairs, recognizing the growing importance of diplomatic efforts
and the need for a stable structure to manage foreign relations, particularly
with France, Spain, and other European powers.
January 12, 1781 (Friday):
Congress endorses a treasury inquiry report that acquits the commissioners of
the chambers of accounts. This likely involved a review of financial conduct to
ensure transparency and accountability in the handling of public funds.
January 15, 1781 (Monday):
A new fiscal appeal to the states from New Hampshire to Pennsylvania is
adopted, reflecting Congress’s ongoing attempts to secure funding from the
states in order to sustain the war effort.
January 17, 1781 (Wednesday):
Congress appoints John Cochran as the Director of the Hospital Department,
responsible for overseeing the medical care of soldiers. John Pierce is also
appointed Paymaster General, tasked with managing the payment of troops, a
critical position given the ongoing issues with pay.
January 19, 1781 (Friday):
Congress opens debate on the fiscal crisis, which had been exacerbated by
inflation, the depreciation of Continental currency, and the states’ reluctance
or inability to meet financial requisitions.
January 24, 1781 (Wednesday):
Congress receives a report on the mutiny of the Pennsylvania Line, which
provides details on the causes and current status of the situation, as the
unrest among the soldiers posed a serious threat to military discipline and the
overall war effort.
January 31, 1781 (Wednesday):
A recommendation from the committee of the whole is received, advocating for a
5 percent impost (a tax on imported goods) to help address the fiscal crisis.
This proposal was part of Congress’s ongoing attempts to generate revenue
independent of the states.
February 1781
February 2, 1781 (Friday):
Congress rejects Pennsylvania’s appeal for an emergency pay response to address
the grievances of the Pennsylvania Line mutineers. This decision underscores
the financial constraints Congress faced, despite the pressing need to restore
order.
February 3, 1781 (Saturday):
Congress recommends that the states empower it to levy a 5 percent impost,
further pressing for a centralized means of raising revenue to fund the war.
The lack of financial independence was a major weakness of Congress under the
Articles of Confederation.
February 5, 1781 (Monday):
Congress commends General Samuel Parsons' troops for their successful attack at
Morrisania, New York, reflecting the ongoing military engagements with British
forces. Congress also defines alien property rights under the Franco-American
treaties, ensuring that French citizens’ property would be protected under U.S.
law.
February 7, 1781 (Wednesday):
Congress adopts a plan to create three new departments: finance, war, and
marine. This reorganization was designed to improve the management and
oversight of the critical functions of government, particularly as the war
placed immense strain on resources.
February 8, 1781 (Thursday):
News arrives of General Daniel Morgan's stunning victory at the Battle of
Cowpens in South Carolina. This pivotal battle was a major morale boost for the
Continental Army in the southern theater of the war.
February 12, 1781 (Monday):
Congress receives Maryland’s act authorizing the ratification of the Articles
of Confederation. Maryland had been the last holdout, primarily due to disputes
over western land claims, and its ratification was a significant step toward
formalizing the framework of the new government.
February 15, 1781 (Thursday):
Congress authorizes expenditures to support the eastern Native American
department and permits John Jay, the U.S. envoy to Spain, to recede from his
previous instructions that insisted on the free navigation of the Mississippi
River. This change in instructions likely reflected the complexities of
negotiating with Spain over territorial and navigation rights.
February 19, 1781 (Monday):
Congress orders an inquiry into the causes of delays in the shipment of
clothing and arms from France, recognizing the vital importance of these
supplies in sustaining the war effort.
February 20, 1781 (Tuesday):
Congress orders reinforcements and resupply of the southern department, where
the Continental Army was fighting to hold off British advances. On the same
day, Robert Morris is appointed Superintendent of Finance, marking a critical
step in reforming the country’s financial system.
February 22, 1781 (Thursday):
Congress assigns March 1, 1781, as the date for completing and ratifying the
Articles of Confederation. This would formalize the union of the states and
establish a more permanent structure for governance.
February 23, 1781 (Friday):
Congress debates and recommits the report on the Hartford economic convention,
which had focused on financial and economic matters among the New England
states.
February 24, 1781 (Saturday):
Congress doubles postage rates, likely in an effort to raise additional
revenue, and adopts a plan for ratification ceremonies to mark the official
adoption of the Articles of Confederation.
February 27, 1781 (Tuesday):
Congress commends John Paul Jones for his "distinguished bravery and
military conduct," particularly for his victory over the British ship Serapis
during the famous naval battle off the coast of England. On the same day,
Alexander McDougall is elected Secretary of Marine.
February 28, 1781 (Wednesday):
Congress postpones the election of the Secretary at War to October 1.
Additionally, it imposes restrictions on ornate military uniforms and
decorations, perhaps in response to financial constraints and concerns over
military discipline. Old business is referred to the newly established United
States in Congress Assembled, the formal government structure under the
Articles of Confederation.
For students and teachers of U.S. history, this video features Stanley and Christopher Klos presenting America's Four United Republics Curriculum at the University of Pennsylvania's Wharton School. Filmed in December 2015, this video is an informal recording by an audience member capturing a presentation attended by approximately 200 students, professors, and guests. To explore the full curriculum, [download it here].
September 5, 1774 | October 22, 1774 | |
October 22, 1774 | October 26, 1774 | |
May 20, 1775 | May 24, 1775 | |
May 25, 1775 | July 1, 1776 |
July 2, 1776 to February 28, 1781
July 2, 1776 | October 29, 1777 | |
November 1, 1777 | December 9, 1778 | |
December 10, 1778 | September 28, 1779 | |
September 29, 1779 | February 28, 1781 |
March 1, 1781 to March 3, 1789
March 1, 1781 | July 6, 1781 | |
July 10, 1781 | Declined Office | |
July 10, 1781 | November 4, 1781 | |
November 5, 1781 | November 3, 1782 | |
November 4, 1782 | November 2, 1783 | |
November 3, 1783 | June 3, 1784 | |
November 30, 1784 | November 22, 1785 | |
November 23, 1785 | June 5, 1786 | |
June 6, 1786 | February 1, 1787 | |
February 2, 1787 | January 21, 1788 | |
January 22, 1788 | January 21, 1789 |
United States in Congress Assembled (USCA) Sessions
USCA | Session Dates | USCA Convene Date | President(s) |
First | 03-01-1781 to 11-04-1781* | 03-02-1781 | |
Second | 11-05-1781 to 11-03-1782 | 11-05-1781 | |
Third | 11-04-1782 to 11-02-1783 | 11-04-1782 | |
Fourth | 11-03-1783 to 10-31-1784 | 11-03-1783 | |
Fifth | 11-01-1784 to 11-06-1785 | 11-29-1784 | |
Sixth | 11-07-1785 to 11-05-1786 | 11-23-1785 | |
Seventh | 11-06-1786 to 11-04-1787 | 02-02-1787 | |
Eighth | 11-05-1787 to 11-02-1788 | 01-21-1788 | |
Ninth | 11-03-1788 to 03-03-1789** | None | None |
* The Articles of Confederation was ratified by the mandated 13th State on February 2, 1781, and the dated adopted by the Continental Congress to commence the new United States in Congress Assembled government was March 1, 1781. The USCA convened under the Articles of Confederation Constitution on March 2, 1781.** On September 14, 1788, the Eighth United States in Congress Assembled resolved that March 4th, 1789, would be commencement date of the Constitution of 1787's federal government thus dissolving the USCA on March 3rd, 1789.
Philadelphia | Sept. 5, 1774 to Oct. 24, 1774 | |
Philadelphia | May 10, 1775 to Dec. 12, 1776 | |
Baltimore | Dec. 20, 1776 to Feb. 27, 1777 | |
Philadelphia | March 4, 1777 to Sept. 18, 1777 | |
Lancaster | September 27, 1777 | |
York | Sept. 30, 1777 to June 27, 1778 | |
Philadelphia | July 2, 1778 to June 21, 1783 | |
Princeton | June 30, 1783 to Nov. 4, 1783 | |
Annapolis | Nov. 26, 1783 to Aug. 19, 1784 | |
Trenton | Nov. 1, 1784 to Dec. 24, 1784 | |
New York City | Jan. 11, 1785 to Nov. 13, 1788 | |
New York City | October 6, 1788 to March 3,1789 | |
New York City | March 3,1789 to August 12, 1790 | |
Philadelphia | Dec. 6,1790 to May 14, 1800 | |
Washington DC | November 17,1800 to Present |
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202-239-1774 | Office
Dr. Naomi and Stanley Yavneh Klos, Principals
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